The importance of ‘learning events’ has become an emergent theme within theorizing on how entrepreneurs learn. This article builds a deeper understanding of the learning outcomes triggered by significant, discontinuous events during the entrepreneurial process. It suggests that the domain of entrepreneurship represents a special and unique context in which to study management learning. It is argued that there is more to learning from discontinuous events than the incremental accumulation of more routinized, habitual, ‘lower-level’ learning. This article illustrates that these events have the capacity to stimulate distinctive forms of ‘higher-level’ learning—learning that is fundamental to the entrepreneur in both personal and business terms. It goes on to explore the concept of critical reflection and suggests that these learning outcomes are the result of what can be described most precisely as ‘inward’ critical self-reflection.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Anderson, V. and Skinner, D. ( 1999 ) ‘Organisational Learning in Practice: How Do Small Businesses Learn to Operate Internationally?’ , Human Resource Development International2 ( 3 ): 235 - 258 .
2.
Appelbaum, S. H. and Goransson, L. ( 1997 ) ‘Transformational and Adaptive Learning Within the Learning Organization: A Framework for Research and Application’ , The Learning Organization4 ( 3 ): 115 - 128 .
3.
Argyris, C. and Schön, D. A. ( 1974 ) Theory in Practice: Increasing Professional Effectiveness . San Francisco, CA : Jossey-Bass .
4.
Argyris, C. and Schön, D. A. ( 1978 ) Organizational Learning: A Theory of Action Perspective . Reading, MA : Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.
5.
Bateson, G. ( 1973 ) Steps to an Ecology of Mind . New York : Ballantine Books .
6.
Boud, D. , Cohen, R. and Walker, D. ( 1993 ) ‘Introduction: Understanding Learning from Experience’ , in D. Boud , R. Cohen and D. Walker (eds) Using Experience for Learning . Buckingham : SRHE & Open University Press .
7.
Boud, D. , Keogh, R. and Walker, D. ( 1985a ) ‘What is Reflection in Learning?’ , in D. Boud , R. Keogh and D. Walker (eds) Reflection: Turning Experience into Learning . London : Kogan Page .
8.
Boud, D. , Keogh, R. and Walker, D. ( 1985b ) ‘Promoting Reflection in Learning: A Model’ , in D. Boud , R. Keogh and D. Walker (eds) Reflection: Turning Experience into Learning . London : Kogan Page .
9.
Brown, R. B. ( 2000 ) ‘Contemplating the Emotional Component of Learning’ , Management Learning31 ( 3 ): 275 - 293 .
10.
Burgoyne, J. G. ( 1995 ) ‘Learning from Experience: From Individual Discovery to Metadialogue via the Evolution of Transitional Myths’ , Personnel Review24 ( 6 ): 61 - 72 .
11.
Burgoyne, J. G. and Hodgson, V. E. ( 1983 ) ‘Natural Learning and Managerial Action: A Phenomenological Study in the Field Setting’ , Journal of Management Studies20 ( 3 ): 387 - 399 .
12.
Burns, P. and Harrison, J. ( 1989 ) ‘Growth’ , in P. Burns and J. Dewhurst (eds) Small Business and Entrepreneurship . Basingstoke : Macmillan .
13.
Cavanaugh, J. M. and Prasad, A. ( 1996 ) ‘Critical Theory and Management Education: Some Strategies for the Critical Classroom’ , in R. French and C. Grey (eds) Rethinking Management Education . London : Sage Publications .
14.
Chell, E. ( 1998 ) ‘Critical Incident Technique’ , in G. Symon and C. Cassell (eds) Qualitative Methods and Analysis in Organisational Research: A Practical Guide . London : Sage Publications .
15.
Churchill, N. C. and Lewis, V. L. ( 1983 ) ‘The Five Stages of Small Business Growth’ , Harvard Business Review ( 3 ): 30 - 50 .
16.
Cope, J. (2001) ‘The Entrepreneurial Experience: Towards a Dynamic Learning Perspective of Entrepreneurship’, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Lancaster.
17.
Cope, J. and Watts, G. ( 2000 ) ‘Learning by Doing: An Exploration of Experience, Critical Incidents and Reflection in Entrepreneurial Learning’ , International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research6 ( 3 ): 104 - 124 .
18.
Costello, N. ( 1996 ) ‘Learning and Routines in High-tech SMEs: Analysing Rich Case Study Material’ , Journal of Economic Studies30 ( 2 ): 591 - 597 .
19.
Daudelin, M. W. ( 1996 ) ‘Learning from Experience through Reflection’ , Organizational Dynamics24 ( 3 ): 36 - 48 .
20.
Deakins, D. and Freel, M. ( 1998 ) ‘Entrepreneurial Learning and the Growth Process in SMEs’ , The Learning Organization5 ( 3 ): 144 - 155 .
21.
Fiol, C. M. and Lyles, M. A. ( 1985 ) ‘Organizational Learning’ , Academy of Management Review10 ( 4 ): 803 - 813 .
22.
Flanagan, J. C. ( 1954 ) ‘The Critical Incident Technique’ , Psychological Bulletin51 ( 4 ): 327 - 358 .
23.
Gibb, A. A. (1995) ‘Learning Skills For All: The Key to Success in Small Business Development?’ , paper presented at the International Council for Small Business—40th World Conference , Sydney, Australia .
24.
Gibb, A. A. ( 1997 ) ‘Small Firms’ Training and Competitiveness: Building on the Small Business as a Learning Organisation’ , International Small Business Journal15 ( 3 ): 13 - 29 .
25.
Gibb, A. A. ( 2000 ) ‘Corporate Restructuring and Entrepreneurship: What Can Large Organizations Learn From Small?’ , Enterprise and Innovation Management Studies1 ( 1 ): 19 - 35 .
26.
Gilbert, D. C. and Morris, L. ( 1995 ) ‘The Usefulness of the Critical Incident Technique Analysis in Isolating Travel Satisfactions’ , International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management7 ( 4 ): 5 - 7 .
27.
Gold, J. and Holman, D. ( 2001 ) ‘“Let Me Tell You a Story”: An Evaluation of the Use of Storytelling and Argument Analysis in Management Education’ , Career Development International6 ( 7 ): 384 - 395 .
28.
Gold, J. , Holman, D. and Thorpe, R. ( 2002 ) ‘The Role of Argument Analysis and Storytelling in Facilitating Critical Thinking’ , Management Learning33 ( 3 ): 371 - 388 .
29.
Hines, T. and Thorpe, R. (1995) ‘New Approaches to Understanding Small Firm Networks—The Key to Performance, Managerial Learning and Development’ , paper presented at the 18th ISBA National Small Firms Policy and Research Conference , Paisley .
30.
Hofer, C. W. and Charan, R. ( 1984 ) ‘The Transition to Professional Management: Mission Impossible?’ , American Journal of Small Business9 ( 1 ): 1 - 11 .
31.
Huber, G. P. ( 1991 ) ‘Organizational Learning: The Contributing Processes and the Literatures’ , Organization Science2 ( 1 ): 88 - 115 .
32.
Kemmis, S. ( 1985 ) ‘Action Research and the Politics of Reflection’ , in D. Boud , R. Keogh and D. Walker (eds) Reflection: Turning Experience into Learning . London : Kogan Page .
33.
Kim, D. H. ( 1993 ) ‘The Link between Individual and Organizational Learning’ , Sloan Management Review ( Fall ): 37 - 50 .
34.
Kleiner, A. and Roth, G. ( 1997 ) ‘How to Make Experience Your Company’s Best Teacher’ , Harvard Business Review75 ( 5 ): 172 - 177 .
35.
Marsick, V. J. and Watkins, K. E. ( 1990 ) Informal and Incidental Learning in the Workplace . London : Routledge .
36.
Mezirow, J. ( 1990 ) ‘How Critical Reflection Triggers Transformative Learning’ , in J. M. A. Associates (eds) Fostering Critical Reflection in Adulthood: A Guide to Transformative and Emancipatory Learning . San Francisco : Jossey-Bass .
37.
Mezirow, J. ( 1991 ) Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning . San Francisco : Jossey-Bass .
38.
Mumford, A. ( 1991 ) ‘Individual and Organizational Learning—The Pursuit of Change’ , Industrial and Commercial Training23 ( 6 ): 24 - 31 .
39.
Nevis, E. C. , DiBella, A. J. and Gould, J. M. ( 1995 ) ‘Understanding Organizations as Learning Systems’ , Sloan Management Review ( Winter ): 73 - 85 .
40.
Nicolini, D. and Mesnar, M. B. ( 1995 ) ‘The Social Construction of Organizational Learning: Conceptual and Practical Issues in the Field’ , Human Relations48 ( 7 ): 727 - 747 .
41.
Pask, G. ( 1976 ) ‘Styles and Strategies of Learning’ , British Journal of Educational Psychology45 : 12 - 25 .
42.
Penn, D. W. , Ang’wa, W. , Forster, R. , Heydon, G. and Richardson, S. J. ( 1998 ) ‘Learning in Smaller Organisations’ , The Learning Organisation5 ( 3 ): 128 - 137 .
43.
Prange, C. ( 1999 ) ‘Organizational Learning—Desperately Seeking Theory?’ , in M. Easterby-Smith , J. Burgoyne and L. Araujo (eds) Organizational Learning and the Learning Organization . London : Sage Publications .
44.
Rae, D. and Carswell, M. ( 2000 ) ‘Using a Life-story Approach in Researching Entrepreneurial Learning: The Development of a Conceptual Model and its Implications in the Design of Learning Experiences’ , Education and Training42 ( 4/5 ): 220 - 227 .
45.
Reuber, A. R. and Fischer, E. M. ( 1993 ) ‘The Learning Experiences of Entrepreneurs’ , in N. C. E. A. Churchill (ed.) Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research . Wellesby, MA : Babson Centre .
46.
Reynolds, M. ( 1998 ) ‘Reflection and Critical Reflection in Management Learning’ , Management Learning29 ( 2 ): 182 - 200 .
47.
Sadler-Smith, E. , Chaston, I. and Spicer, D. P. (1999) ‘Organizational Learning in Smaller Firms: An Empirical Perspective’ , in M. Easterby-Smith , L. Araujo and J. Burgoyne (eds) Proceedings of the 3rd International Organizational Learning Conference . Lancaster University: Department of Management Learning .
48.
Schön, D. A. ( 1983 ) The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action . New York : Basic Books .
49.
Scott, M. and Bruce, R. ( 1987 ) ‘Five Stages of Growth in Small Business’ , Long Range Planning20 ( 3 ): 45 - 52 .
50.
Senge, P. M. ( 1990 ) The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization . London : Century Business .
51.
Spicer, D. P. ( 1998 ) ‘Linking Mental Models and Cognitive Maps as an Aid to Organizational Learning’ , Career Development International3 ( 3 ): 125 - 132 .
52.
Stake, R. E. ( 1995 ) The Art of Case Study Research . London : Sage Publications .
53.
Sullivan, R. ( 2000 ) ‘Entrepreneurial Learning and Mentoring’ , International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research6 ( 3 ): 160 - 175 .
54.
Taylor, D. W. and Thorpe, R. (2000) ‘The Owner-manager—No Isolated Monad: Learning as a Process of Co-participation’ , in Proceedings of the 23rd ISBA National Small Firms Conference . Aberdeen: Robert Gordon University .
55.
Thompson, C. J. , Locander, W. B. and Pollio, H. R. ( 1989 ) ‘Putting Consumer Experience Back into Consumer Research: The Philosophy and Method of Existential Phenomenology’ , Journal of Consumer Research16 : 133 - 146 .
56.
Toulmin, S. ( 1958 ) The Uses of Argument . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
57.
Willmott, H. ( 1993 ) ‘Critical Management Learning’ , in J. Burgoyne and M. Reynolds (eds) Management Learning: Integrating Perspectives in Theory and Practice . London : Sage Publications .
58.
Young, J. E. and Sexton, D. L. ( 1997 ) ‘Entrepreneurial Learning: A Conceptual Frame-work’ , Journal of Enterprising Culture5 ( 3 ): 223 - 248 .
