This study approaches the management learning process of individuals as an interaction between personal and situational characteristics. Combining insights from cognitive learning theory and social construction theory, it aims to explore the interactions between learning opportunities and learning behavior on the job. Learning opportunities are divided into four categories: obstacles, support, task-related characteristics, and transitions. Learning behavior is specified in five elements: instruction-oriented learning Gestalt learning tactical learning, planned learning, and tacit learning. Examination of five main hypotheses leads to the conclusion that, among MBAs in their early career stage, there is an interaction between individual learning behavior and the amount of learning opportunities, although the latter influences learning behavior in a less dominant way. More specifically, Gestalt learning results in more support, which itself leads to more planned learning which in turn increases the number of learning opportunities. Discussion focuses on possible explanations why not all hypotheses were confirmed.
Argyris, C. and Schon, D. (1978) Organizational Learning: A Theory of Action Perspective. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
2.
Ashford, S. J. and Black, J. S. (1992) `Self-socialization: Individual Tactics to Facilitate Organizational Entry', paper presented at the meetings of the Academy of Management, Las Vegas, NV.
3.
Ashford, S. J. and Black, J. S. (1996) `Proactivity During Organizational Entry: The Role of Desire for Control', Journal of Applied Psychology81(2): 199-214.
4.
Bell, N. E. and Staw, B. M. (1989) `People as Sculptors vs. Sculpture: The Role of Personality and Personal Control in Organizations', in M. B. Arthur, D. T. Hall and B. S. Lawrence (eds) The Handbook of Career Theory, pp. 232-251. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5.
Bruner, J. S. and Haste, H. (1987) Making Sense. London: Methuen.
6.
Colarelli, S. M. , Dean, R. A. and Konstans, C. (1987) `Comparative Effects of Personal and Situational Influences on Job Outcomes of New Professionals', Journal of Applied Psychology72(4): 558-566.
7.
Crossan, M. , Tiemessen, I., Lane, H. W. and White, R. E. (1995) `Diagnosing Organizational Learning', Working paper 95-08. Western Business School, University of Western Ontario.
8.
Day, C. and Baskett, H. K. (1982) `Discrepancies between Intentions and Practice: Reexamining Some Basic Assumptions about Adult and Continuing Professional Education', International Journal of Lifelong Education1 (2): 143-155.
9.
Dix, J. E. and Savickas, M. L. (1995) `Establishing a Career: Developmental Tasks and Coping Responses', Journal of Vocational Behavior47: 93-107.
10.
Frese, M. (1997) `How to Plan as a Small Scale Business Owner: Psychological Process Characteristics of Action Strategies and Success', Discussion Paper. Aktie Strategieen8, UVA.
11.
Gergen, K. (1992) `Organization Theory in the Postmodern Era', in M. Reed and M. Hughes (eds) Rethinking Organizations. London: Sage Publications.
12.
Gherardi, S. , Nicolini, D. and Odella, F. (1998) `Toward a Social Understanding of How People Learn in Organizations', Management Learning29(3): 273-297.
13.
Hoeksema, L. H. (1995) `Learning Strategy as a Guide to Career Success in Organizations', dissertation, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen.
14.
Hoeksema, L. H. , Van der Vliert, E. and Williams, A. R. T. (1997) `The Interplay between Learning Strategy and Organizational Structure in Predicting Career Success', The International Journal of Human Resource Management8: 307-327.
15.
Holman, D. , Pavlica, K and Thorpe, R. (1997) `Rethinking Kolb's Theory of Experiential Learning in Management Education', Management Learning28(2): 135-148.
16.
Hunt, J. G. (1991) Leadership: A New Synthesis. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
17.
James, L. R. and Tetrick, L. E. (1986) `Confirmatory Analytic Tests of Three Causal Models Relating Job Perceptions to Job Satisfaction', Journal of Applied Psychology71: 77-82.
18.
Kahneman, D. (1973) Attention and Effort. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
19.
Keys, B. and Wolfe, J. (1988) `Management Education and Development: Current Issues and Emerging Trends', Journal of Management205-229.
20.
Klemp, G. O. , Munger, M. J. and Spencer, L. M. (1977) Analysis of Leadership and Management Competencies of Commissioned and Non-commissioned Naval Officers in the Pacific and Atlantic Fleets. Final Report. Boston, MA: McBer & Co.
21.
Kolb, D. A. (1984) Experiential Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
22.
Kuhnert, K. W. and Russell, C. (1990) `Using Constructive Developmental Theory and Biodata to Bridge the Gap between Personnel Selection and Leadership', Journal of Management16: 595-607.
23.
McCauley, C. D. , Ruderman, M. N., Ohlott, P. J. and Morrow, J. E. (1994) `Assessing the Developmental Components of Managerial Jobs', Journal of Applied Psychology79(4): 544-560.
24.
McGill, M. E. , Slocum, J. W. and Lei, D. (1992) `Management Practices in Learning Organizations', Organizational Dynamics21: 5-17.
25.
Manz, C. C. and Sims, H. P. Jr (1980) `Self-management as a Substitute for Leadership: A Social Learning Theory Perspective', Academy of Management Review5: 361-367.
26.
March, J. G. (1991) `Exploration and Exploitation in Organizational Learning', Organizational Science2 (1): February.
27.
Megginson, D. (1996) `Planned and Emergent Learning', Management Learning27(4): 411-428.
28.
Miller, V. D. and Jablin, F. M. (1991) `Information Seeking During Organizational Entry: Influences Tactics and a Model of the Process', Academy of Management Review16: 92-120.
29.
Minor, A. and Mezias, S. (1996) `Ugly Duckling No More: Pasts and Futures of Organizational Learning Research', Organizational Science7 (1): 88-99.
30.
Mitchell, T. R. and Kalb, L. S. (1982) `Effects of Job Experience on Supervisor Attributions for a Subordinate's Poor Performance', Journal of Applied Psychology67: 181-188.
31.
Morrison, E. W. (1993) `Longitudinal Study of the Effects of Information Seeking on Newcomer Socialization', Journal of Applied Psychology78: 173-183.
32.
Mumford, A. (1997) Management Development: Strategies for Action, 3rd edn.London: Institute of Personnel and Development.
33.
Nelson, R. R. and Winter, S. G. (1982) An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
34.
Nicholson, N. (1984) `A Theory of Work Role Transitions', Administrative Science Quarterly29: 172-191.
35.
Nicholson, N. and West, M. (1988) Managerial Job Change: Men and Women in Transition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
36.
Peiperl, M. A. and Van der Sluis, E. C. (1999) `The Experience `of Boundarylessness: Job Change, Extrinsic and Intrinsic Career Success among Early-career MBAs', revised version of LBS-Working Paper Series: 99-02; Nominated paper to be presented at the Academy of Management Meeting, Chicago, IL.
37.
Poell, R. F. (1998) `Organizing Work-related Learning Projects: A Network Approach', PhD dissertation, Nijmegen Katholieke Universiteit.
38.
Poell, R. F. and Chivers, G. E. (in press) `New Roles of HRD Consultants in the Learning Organisation', in M. Kelleher, P. Cressey and R. F. Poell (eds) Learning in Learning Organisations: European Perspectives. Luxembourg: CEDEFOP.
39.
Poell, R. F. , Chivers, G. E., Van der Krogt, F. J. and Wildemeersch, D. A. (2000) `Learning-network Theory: Organizing the Dynamic Relationships between Learning and Work', Management Learning31 (1): 25-49.
40.
Poell, R. F. , Van der Krogt, F. J. and Wildemeersch, D. A. (1999) `Strategies in Organizing Work-related Learning Projects', Human Resource Development Quarterly10(1): 43-61.
41.
Resnick, L. B. (1993) `Shared Cognition: Thinking as a Social Practice', in L. Resnick, J. Levine and S. D. Teasley (eds) Perspectives on Socially Shared Cognition. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
42.
Reynolds, M. (1997) `Learning Styles: A Critique', Management Learning28(2): 115-133.
43.
Richter, I. (1998) `Individual and Organizational Learning at the Executive Level', Management Learning29 (3): 299-316.
44.
Robinson, D. F. and Miner, A. S. (1996) `Careers Change as Organizations Learn', in M. B. Arthur and D. M. Rousseau (eds) The Boundaryless Career: A New Employment Principle for a New Organizational Era, pp. 76-94. New York: Oxford University Press.
45.
Rogoff, B. and Lave, J. (eds) (1984) Everyday Cognition: Its Development in Social Contexts. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
46.
Rorty, R. (1980) Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature.:Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
47.
Sadler-Smith, E. (1998) 'Cognitive Style and the Self-management of Learning', proceedings of the Lancaster-Leeds Collaborative Conference, Leeds, 15-17July.
48.
Shotter, J. (1991) 'The Rhetorical-responsive Nature of Mind: A Social Constructivist Account', in A. Still and J. Costall (eds) Against Cognitivism: Alternative Foundations for a Cognitive Psychology. Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
49.
Simon, H. A. (1991) 'Bounded Rationality and Organizational Learning', Organizational Science2(1): 125-133.
50.
Smith, E. M. and Kozlowski, S. W. J. (1995) 'Newcomer Socialization: The Effects of Learning Strategies and Role Relationships on Learning Outcomes', paper presented at the 10th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Orlando, FL.
51.
Snell, R. S. (1990) 'Congenial Ways of Learning: So Near and Yet so Far', Journal of Management Development9: 17-23.
52.
Spreitzer, G. M. , McCall, M. W. Jr and Mahoney, J. D. (1997) 'Early Identification of International Executive Potential', Journal of Applied Psychology82 (1): 6-29.
53.
Stewart, R. (1984) 'Developing Managers by Radical Job Moves', Journal of Management Development3(2): 48-55.
54.
Tannenbaum, S. I. (1997) 'Enhancing Continuous Learning: Diagnostic Findings from Multiple Companies', Human Resource Management36(4): 437-452.
55.
Tracey, J. B. , Tannenbaum, S. I. and Kavanagh, M. J. (1995) 'Applying Trained Skills on the Job: The Importance of the Work Environment', Journal of Applied Psychology80: 239-252.
56.
Van der Krogt, F. J. (1998) 'Learning Network Theory: The Tension between Learning Systems and Work Systems in Organizations', Human Resource Development Quarterly9(2): 157-177.
57.
Van der Sluis, E. C. (1999) 'The Interaction of Learning Context and Learning Behaviour: A Cross-section Study of Managerial Learning', in R. Pepermans, I. Flion, J. C. A. Ardts and P. G. W Jansen (eds) Managerial Behavior: Empirical Studies on Management Development and Socialization, pp. 25-42. Leuven: Acco.
58.
Van der Sluis, E. C. (2000) 'Management Learning and Development: The Role of Learning Opportunities and Learning Behavior in Management Development and Career Success', dissertation, Erasmus University, Rotterdam; Thela Thesis, Tinbergen Institute.
59.
Van Maanen, J. (1977) 'Experiencing Organizations: Notes on the Meaning of Careers and Socialization', in J. Van Maanen (ed.) Organizational Careers: Some New Perspectives, pp. 15-45. New York: Wiley.
60.
Van Parreren, C. F. (1989) Leren op School (Learning at School). Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff.
61.
Vinkenburg, C. J. (1997) 'Managerial Behavior and Effectiveness: Determinants, Measurement Issues and Gender Differences', dissertation, University of Amsterdam. Amsterdam: Thesis Publishers.
62.
Weick, K. E. (1995) Sensemaking in Organizations. London: Sage Publications.
63.
Weick, K E. and Westley, F. (1995) 'Organizational Learning: Affirming an Oxymoron', in S. Clegg and C. Hardy (eds) Handbook of Organizational Studies. London: Sage Publications.
64.
Wexley, K. N. and Baldwin, T. T. (1986) 'Management Development', 1986 Yearly Review of Management of theJournal of Management12: 277-294.
65.
White, R. (1959) 'Motivation Reconsidered: The Concept of Competence', Psychological Review66: 297-333.
66.
Wick, C. W. (1989) 'How People Develop: An In-depth Look', HR Report7(6): 1-3.
67.
Yukl, G. A. and Tracey, J. B. (1992) 'Consequences of Influence Tactics Used with Subordinates, Peers, and the Boss', Journal of Applied Psychology77(4): 525-535.
