Young,Innocent and Sexist? Social Differences in Benevolent and Hostile Sexist Attitudes towards Women amongst Flemish Adolescents

Abstract

Over the past few decades the position of women in Western societies has substantially improved in several domains. However, persistent inequalities remain and gender prejudice is thought to play a key role in this. In this article, we contribute to the literature which holds that in current Western societies, gender prejudice manifests itself in a more ‘benevolent’ form which encompasses subjectively favourable but patronizing attitudes towards women. We investigated the distribution of hostile sexism (HS) and benevolent sexism (BS) towards women amongst a large sample of Flemish adolescents (N = 952). We found that while HS towards women is most prevalent amongst boys in technical and vocational education, girls in technical and vocational education also comply with macho culture. Moreover, these less educated girls also display the most BS towards women.

Keywords

Survey research hostile and benevolent sexism traditional gender roles

References

Abrams

Viki

G.T.N.

Masser

Bohner

(2003) ‘Perceptions of Stranger and Acquaintance Rape: The Role of Benevolent and Hostile Sexism in Victim Blame and Rape Proclivity’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84 (1): 111–25.

Becker

J.C.

(2010) ‘Why Do Women Endorse Hostile and Benevolent Sexism: The Role of Salient Female Subtypes and Internalization of Sexist Contents’, Sex Roles 62 (7–8): 453–67.

Becker

J.C.

Wright

S.C.

(2011) ‘Yet Another Dark Side of Chivalry: Benevolent Sexism Undermines and Hostile Sexism Motivates Collective Action for Social Change’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 101 (1): 62–77.

Bradt

Pleysier

Put

Siongers

Spruyt

(eds) (2014) Jongeren in cijfers en letters 3 [Young people in numbers and letters 3]. Leuven: Acco.

Connelly

Heesacker

(2012) ‘Why is Benevolent Sexism Appealing? Associations with System Justification and Life Satisfaction’, Psychology of Women Quarterly 36 (4): 432–43.

Connolly

Goldberg

(1999) ‘Romantic Relationships in Adolescence: The Role of Friends and Peers in Their Emergence and Development’, in Furman

Brown

Feiring

(eds) The Development of Romantic Relationships in Adolescence, pp. 266–90. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cuddy

A.J.C.

Glick

Crotty

Chong

Norton

M.I.

(2015) ‘Men as Cultural Ideals: Cultural Values Moderate Gender Stereotype Content’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 109 (4): 622–35.

Cunningham

(2008) ‘Changing Attitudes toward the Male Breadwinner, Female Homemaker Family Model: Influences of Women’s Employment and Education over the Lifecourse’, Social Forces 87 (1): 299–323.

Davis

S.N.

Greenstein

T.N.

(2009) ‘Gender Ideology: Components, Predictors, and Consequences’, Annual Review of Sociology 35 (1): 87–105.

10.

Delacollette

Dumont

Sarlet

Dardenne

(2013) ‘Benevolent Sexism, Men’s Advantages and the Prescription of Warmth to Women’, Sex Roles 68 (5–6): 296–310.

11.

De Lemus

Moya

Glick

. (2010) ‘When Contact Correlates with Prejudice: Adolescents’ Romantic Relationship Experience Predicts Greater Benevolent Sexism in Boys and Hostile Sexism in Girls’, Sex Roles 63 (3): 214–25.

12.

De Ro

. (2008) Education in Flanders: The Flemish Educational Landscape in a Nutshell. Brussels: Department of Education and Training.

13.

Dierckx

Motmans

Meier

(2014) Attitudemeting met betrekking tot Seksisme, Holebifobie en Transfobie: ‘Beyond the Box’ [Measuring attitudes regarding Sexism, Biphobia and Transphobia: ‘Beyond the Box’]. Antwerpen: Onderzoeksgroep Burgerschap, Gelijkheid en Diversiteit.

14.

Dillman

D.A.

(2007) Mail and Internet Surveys: The Tailored Design Method. New York, NY: Wiley.

15.

Elchardus

(1999) Zonder Maskers: Een Actueel Portret van Jongeren en hun Leraren [Without Masks: An Actual Portrait of Young people and their Teachers]. Gent: Globe.

16.

Elchardus

Herbots

Spruyt

(2013) ‘Keeping on Track and Growing Apart: An Empirical Analysis of the Role of Education and Media in Attitude Formation’, Poetics 41 (5): 524–44.

17.

European Commission (2012) ‘The Current Situation Gender Equality in Belgium: Country Report’, URL (consulted August, 2016): http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/files/epo_campaign/130911_epo_country_profile_belgium.pdf

18.

Eurostat (2015) ‘People Outside the Labour Market’, URL (consulted August, 2016): http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/People_outside_the_labour_market

19.

Farkas

Leaper

(2016) ‘Chivalry’s Double-edged Sword: How Girls’ and Boys’ Paternalistic Attitudes Relate to Their Possible Family and Work Selves’, Sex Roles 74 (5): 220–30.

20.

Fernández

M.L.

Castro

Y.R.

Otero

M.C.

Foltz

M.L.

Lorenzo

M.G.

(2006) ‘Sexism, Vocational Goals, and Motivation as Predictors of Men’s and Women’s Career Choice’, Sex Roles 55 (3–4): 267–72.

21.

Fernández

M.L.

Castro

Y.R.

Torrejón

M.J.S.

(2001) ‘Sexism and Racism in a Spanish Sample of Secondary School Students’, Social Indicators Research 54 (3): 309–28.

22.

Fields

A.M.

Swan

Kloos

(2010) ‘“What it Means to Be a Woman”: Ambivalent Sexism in Female College Students’ Experiences and Attitudes’, Sex Roles 62 (7): 554–67.

23.

Flemish Department of Education (2015) Stem Monitor 2015. Brussels: Vlaams Ministerie van Onderwijs en Vorming.

24.

Furlong

(2013) Youth Studies: An Introduction. London: Routledge.

25.

Gillies

(2007) Marginalised Mothers: Exploring Working-class Experiences of Parenting. New York, NY: Routledge.

26.

Glick

Fiske

(1996) ‘The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating Hostile and Benevolent Sexism’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70 (3): 491–512.

27.

Glick

Fiske

S.T.

Mladinic

Saiz

J.L.

Abrams

Masser

López

W.L.

(2000) ‘Beyond Prejudice as Simple Antipathy: Hostile and Benevolent Sexism Across Cultures’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79 (5): 763–75.

28.

Glick

Hilt

(2000) ‘Combative Children to Ambivalent Adults: The Development of Gender Prejudice’, in Eckes

Trautner

H.M.

(eds) Developmental Social Psychology of Gender, pp. 243–72. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.

29.

Glick

Wilkerson

Cuffe

(2015) ‘Masculine Identity, Ambivalent Sexism, and Attitudes toward Gender Subtypes’, Social Psychology 46 (4): 210–17.

30.

Hammond

M.D.

Sibley

C.G.

(2011) ‘Why Are Benevolent Sexists Happier?’, Sex Roles 65 (5–6): 332–43.

31.

Hardill

Watson

(2004) ‘Career Priorities within Dual Career Households: An Analysis of the Impact of Child Rearing Upon Gender Participation Rates and Earnings’, Industrial Relations Journal 35 (1): 19–37.

32.

Hooghe

Claes

Harell

Quintelier

Dejaeghere

(2010) ‘Anti-gay Sentiment among Adolescents in Belgium and Canada: A Comparative Investigation into the Role of Gender and Religion’, Journal of Homosexuality 57 (3): 384–400.

33.

Human Development Report (2015) ‘Work for Human Development’, URL (consulted August, 2016): http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2015_human_development_report.pdf

34.

Jackman

M.R.

(1994) The Velvet Glove: Paternalism and Conflict in Gender, Class, and Race Relations. California, CA: University of California Press.

35.

Jackson

(2003) ‘Motives for “Laddishness” at School: Fear of Failure and Fear of the “Feminine”’, British Educational Research Journal 29 (4): 583–98.

36.

Kalmijn

Poortman

(2006) ‘His or Her Divorce? The Gendered Nature of Divorce and its Determinants’, European Sociological Review 22 (2): 201–14.

37.

Kaufman

Richardson

(1982) Achievement and Women: Challenging the Assumptions. New York, NY: Free Press.

38.

Kilianski

S.E.

Rudman

L.A.

(1998) ‘Wanting it Both Ways: Do Women Approve of Benevolent Sexism?’, Sex Roles 39 (5): 333–52.

39.

Krabel

Cremers

(eds) (2008) Gender Loops: Gender Mainstreaming in Vocational Training for Educators and in Early Childhood Centres. Berlin: Hinkelsteinsteindruck sozialistische GmbH.

40.

Kulik

(2002) ‘The Impact of Social Background on Gender-role Ideology: Parents’ versus Children’s Attitudes’, Journal of Family Issues 23 (1): 53–73.

41.

Lappalainen

Mietola

Lahelma

(2013) ‘Gendered Divisions on Classed Routes to Vocational Education’, Gender and Education 25 (2): 189–205.

42.

Lovell

(2004) ‘Bourdieu, Class and Gender: “The Return of the Living Dead?”’, in Adkins

Skeggs

(eds) Feminism after Bourdieu, pp. 37–57. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

43.

Miller-Lewis

L.R.

Wade

T.D.

Lee

(2005) ‘Risk Factors for Pregnancy and Childbearing in Single Young Women: Evidence from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health’, International Journal of Behavioral Development 29 (4): 292–303.

44.

Montañés

de Lemus

Bohner

Megías

J. L.

Moya

Garcia-Retamero

(2012) ‘Intergenerational Transmission of Benevolent Sexism from Mothers to Daughters and Its Relation to Daughters’ Academic Performance and Goals’, Sex Roles 66 (7): 468–78.

45.

Montañes

de Lemus

Moya

Bohner

Megías

J.L.

(2013) ‘How Attractive Are Sexist Intimates to Adolescents? The Influence of Sexist Attitudes and Relationship Experience’, Psychology of Women Quarterly 37 (4): 494–506.

46.

Ohlander

Batalova

Treas

(2005) ‘Explaining Educational Influences on Attitudes toward Homosexual Relations’, Social Science Research 34 (4): 781–99.

47.

Ridgeway

C.L.

Correll

S.J.

(2004) ‘Unpacking the Gender System: A Theoretical Perspective on Gender Attitudes and Social Relations’, Gender & Society 18 (4): 510–31.

48.

Robnett

R.D.

Leaper

(2013) ‘ “Girls Don’t Propose! Ew.”: A Mixed Methods Examination of Marriage Tradition Preferences and Benevolent Sexism in Emerging Adults’, Journal of Adolescent Research 28 (1): 96–121.

49.

Sayer

(2005) The Moral Significance of Class. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

50.

Sears

D.O.

(1988) ‘Symbolic Racism’, in Katz

P.A.

Taylor

D.A.

(eds) Eliminating Racism: Profiles in Controversy, pp. 53–84. New York, NY: Plenum Press.

51.

Skeggs

(1997) Formations of Class & Gender. London: SAGE Publications.

52.

Spruyt

Kavadias

Van Droogenbroeck

(2015) ‘Educational Tracking and Sense of Futility: A Matter of Stigma Consciousness?’, Oxford Review of Education 41 (6): 747–65.

53.

Valentova

(2013) ‘Age and Sex Differences in Gender Role Attitudes in Luxembourg Between 1999 and 2008’, Work, Employment & Society 27 (4): 639–57.

54.

Van Hove

. (2013) The Gender Pay Gap in Belgium. Report 2013. Brussels: Institute for the Equality of Women and Men.

55.

Vandebroeck

(2016) Distinctions in the Flesh: Social Class and the Embodiment of Inequality. London: Routledge.

56.

Viki

G.T.

Abrams

Hutchison

(2003) ‘The “True” Romantic: Benevolent Sexism and Paternalistic Chivalry’, Sex Roles 49 (9–10): 533–37.

57.

White

J.B.

Gardner

W.L.

(2009) ‘Think Women, Think Warm: Stereotype Content Activation in Women with a Salient Gender Identity, Using a Modified Stroop Task’, Sex Roles 60 (3–4): 247–60.

58.

Willis

P.E.

(1977) Learning to Labour: How Working Class Kids get Working Class Jobs. Westmead: Saxon House.