Research has suggested a link between smoking and cervical cancer; however, little data are available on secondhand smoke (SHS) exposure and cervical cancer risk. This article reviews the literature on the links among smoking, SHS exposure and cervical cancer. The review was based on a search of electronic databases. The research reviewed clearly showed that smoking increases cervical cancer risk through myriad mechanisms that interact with genetics and the pathologic processes leading to cervical cancer. However, less is understood about the role of SHS in cervical cancer. With new technology enabling scientists to examine how genomic structure responds to environmental stimuli, more information should be forthcoming on links between SHS exposure, biomarkers, and genetic changes involved in the development of cervical cancer.
American Cancer Society. (2008). Cancer facts and figures 2008. Atlanta, GA: American Cancer Society.
2.
American Social Health Association. (2006). STD/STI statistics: Fast facts. Research Triangle Park, NC: American Social Health Association.
3.
Burger, M.P., Hollema, H., Gouw, A.S., Pieters, W.J., & Quint, W.G. (1993). Cigarette smoking and human papillomavirus in patients with reported cervical cytological abnormality. British Medical Journal, 306, 1268-1269.
4.
Campaner, A., Piato, S., Galvao, M., dos Santos, R., & Nadias, R. (2006). Langerhans cells in cervical intraepithelial neoplasia related to smoking habits. Journal of Lower Genital Tract Disease, 10, 223-228.
5.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. ( 2007). Summary of health statistics for U.S. adults: National health interview survey. Hyattsville, MD: CDC.
6.
Clarke, E., Hathcer, J., McKeown-Eyssen, G., & Lickrish, G. (1985). Cervical dysplasia: Association with sexual behavior, smoking, and oral contraceptive use?American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 151, 612-616.
7.
Deacon, J., Evans, C., Yule, R., Desai, M., Binns, W., Taylor, C., et al. (2000). Sexual behaviour and smoking as determinants of cervical HPV infection and of CIN3 among those infected: A case-control study nested within the Manchester cohort. British Journal of Cancer, 83, 1565-1572.
8.
Drobni, P., Naslund, J., & Evander, M. (2004). Lactoferrin inhibits human papillomavirus binding and uptake in vitro. Antiviral Research, 64, 63-68.
9.
Hellberg, D., Nilsson, S., Haley, N.J., Hoffman, D., & Wynder, E. (1988). Smoking and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia: Nicotine and cotinine in serum and cervical mucus in smokers and nonsmokers . American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 158, 910-913.
10.
Holly, E.A., Cress, R.D., Ahn, D.K., Aston, D.A., Kristiansen, J.J., Wu, R., et al. (1993). Detection of mutagens in cervical mucus in smokers and nonsmokers. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention, 2, 223-228.
11.
Jee, S.H., Lee, J.E., Kim, S., Kim, J.H., Um, S.J., Lee, S.J., et al. (2002). GSTP1 polymorphism, cigarette smoking and cervical cancer risk in Korean women. Yonsei Medical Journal , 43, 712-716.
12.
Jee, S.H., Um, S.J., Lee, J.E., Kim, S., Kim, J.H., Lee, S.J., et al. (2003). The effect of codon 98 of the FHIT gene on cervical cancer in Korean women. International Journal of Gynecological Cancer, 13, 843-848.
13.
Kim, H., Lim, Y., Lee, S., Park, S., Kim, C., Hong, C., et al. (2004). Relationship between environmental tobacco smoke and urinary cotinine levels in passive smokers at their residence. Journal of Exposure Analysis & Environmental Epidemiology, 14, S65-S70.
14.
Lane, D., Gray, E.A., Mathur, R.S., & Mathur, S.P. (2005). Up-regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor-C by nicotine in cervical cancer cell lines. American Journal of Reproductive Immunology, 53, 153-158.
15.
Lowdermilk, D., & Perry, S. (2007). Maternity and women's health care (9th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby Elsevier.
16.
Matt, G.E., Quintana, P.J., Hovell, M.F., Bernert, J.T., Song, S., Novianti, N., et al. (2004). Households contaminated by environmental tobacco smoke: Sources of infant exposures. Tobacco Control , 13, 29-37.
17.
Moodley, M. (2005). Update on pathophysiologic mechanisms of human papillomavirus. Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology , 17, 61-64.
18.
Morelli, A.E., Sananes, C., Di Paola, E., Parades, A., & Fainboim, L. (1993). Relationship between human papillona virus and langerhan's cells in cervical condyloma and intraepithelial neoplasis. American Journal of Clinical Pathology, 99, 200-206.
19.
Nadias, R., Campaner, A., Piato, S., Galvao, M., dos Santos, R., & Aoki, T. (2006). Langerhans' cells and smoking in intraepithelial neoplasia of the cervix. Gynecologic Oncology, 102, 356-360.
20.
Nelson, M.E., O'Brien-Ladner, A.R., & Wesselius, L.J. (1996). Regional variation in iron and iron-binding proteins within the lungs of smokers. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 153, 1353-1358.
21.
Prokopczyk, B., Cox, J.E., Hoffmann, D., & Waggoner, S.E. (1997). Identification of tobacco-specific carcinogen in the cervical mucus of smokers and nonsmokers. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 89, 868-873.
22.
Seccareccia, F., Zuccaro, P., Pacifici, R., Meli, P., Pannozzo, F., Freeman, K.M., et al. (2003). Serum cotinine as a marker of environmental tobacco smoke exposure in epidemiological studies: The experience of the MATISS project. European Journal of Epidemiology, 18, 487-492.
23.
Simons, A.M., Mugica van Herckenrode, C., Rodriguez, J.A., Maitland, N., Anderson, M., Phillips, D.H., et al. (1995). Demonstration of smoking-related DNA damage in cervical epithelium and correlation with human papillomavirus type 16, using exfoliated cervical cells. British Journal of Cancer , 71, 246-249.
24.
Simons, A.M., Phillips, D.H., & Coleman, D.V. (1993). Damage to DNA in cervical epithelium related to smoking tobacco. British Medical Journal, 306, 1444-1448.
25.
Slattery, M.L., Robinson, L.M., Schuman, K.L., French, T.K., Abbott, T.M., Overall, J.C., et al. (1989). Cigarette smoking and exposure to passive smoke are risk factors for cervical cancer. Journal of the American Medical Association, 261, 1593-1598.
26.
Sobti, R., Kaur, S., Kaur, P., Singh, J., Gupta, I., & Jain, V., et al. (2006). Interaction of passive smoking with GST (GSTM1, GSTT1, and GSTP1) genotypes in the risk of cervical cancer in India . Cancer Genetics and Cytogenetics, 166, 117-123.
27.
Stein, C.K., Glover, T.W., Palmer, J.L., & Glisson, B.S. (2002). Direct correlation between FRA3B expression and cigarette smoking. Genes, Chromosomes, & Cancer, 34, 333-340.
28.
Syrjanen, K., Shabalova, I., Petrovichev, N., Kozachenko, V., Zakharaova, T., Pajanidi, J., et al. (2007). Smoking is an independent risk factor of oncogenic human papillomavirus (HPV) infections but not for high-grade CIN . European Journal of Epidemiology, 22, 723-735.
29.
Szarewski, A., Jarvis, M.J., & Sasieni, P. (1996). Effect of smoking cessation on cervical cancer size. Lancet, 3, 941-943.
30.
Tamandani, D.M., Sobti, R.C., Shekari, M., Kaur, S., & Huria, A. (2008). Impact of polymorphisms in IL-1RA gene on the rise of cervical cancer. Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics , 277, 527-533.
31.
Tay, S., & Tay, K. (2004). Passive cigarette smoking is a risk factor in cervical neoplasia. Gynecologic Oncology, 93, 116-120.
32.
Trevathan, E., Layde, P., Webster, L., Adams, J., Benigno, B., & Ory, H. (1983). Cigarette smoking and dysplasia and carcinoma in situ of the uterine cervix. Journal of the American Medical Association, 250, 499-509.
33.
Trimble, C.L., Genkinger, J.M., Burke, A.E.,. Hoffman, S.C., Heizlsouer, K.J., Diener-West, M., et al. (2005). Active and passive cigarette smoking and the risk of cervical neoplasia. Obstetrics & Gynecology , 105, 174-181.
34.
Trunk, M.J., Wentzensen, N., & von Knebel Doeberitz, M. (2005). Molecular pathogenesis of cervical cancer and its first steps. Pathologe, 26, 283-290.
35.
Tsai, H., Tsai, Y., Yang, S., Wu, K., Chuang, H., Wu, T., et al. (2006). Lifetime cigarette smoke and second-hand smoke and cervical intraepithelial neoplasm: A community-based case-control study. Gynecologic Oncology, 105, 181-188.
36.
Wigle, D.T., Mao, Y., & Grace, M. (1980). Smoking and cancer of the uterine cervix: Hypothesis . American Journal of Epidemiology, 111, 125-127.
37.
Wu, M., Lee, L., Ho, C., Liu, C., Wu, T., Wu, S., et al. (2003). Lifetime exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and cervical intraepithelial neoplasms among non-smoking Taiwanese women . Archives of Environmental Health, 58, 353-359.
38.
Zhang, Z., Gerhard, D., Nguyen, L., Li, J., Traugott, A., Huettner, P., et al. (2005). Fine mapping and evaluation of candidate genes for cervical cancer on 11q23. Genes, Chromosomes and Cancer, 43, 95-103.
39.
Zhang, Z., Borecki, I., Nguyen, L., Ma, D., Smith, S., Huettner, P., et al. (2007). CD83 Gene polymorphisms increase susceptibility to human invasive cervical cancer. Cancer Research, 67, 11202-11208.
