There is a volume of research that has analyzed the police use of force— particularly the use of deadly force. Past research has been limited by em ploying only a dichotomous measurement of force. This paper explores predictors of the police use of force in Phoenix by analyzing 1,220 arrests. In addition, the paper employs the concept of a continuum of force. Lo gistic regression results show the strongest predictors of police use of force are length of time on the force, suspect race, chemical impairment, at tempt to flee and possession of a weapon. Relevant literature and research implications are discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Adams, K.1995. "Measuring the Prevalence of Police Abuse of Force ." Pp. 61-98 in And Justice for All: Understanding and Controlling Abuse of Force , edited by W. Geller and H. Toch.Washington, DC: Police Executive Research Forum.
2.
Alpert, G. and R. Dunham.1997. The Force Factor: Measuring Police Use of Force Relative to Suspect Resistance. Washington, DC : Police Executive Research Forum.
3.
Americans for Effective Law Enforcement. 1988. Use of Force Tactics and Non-Lethal Weaponry. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
4.
Bayley, D.H. and H. Mendelsohn.1969. Minorities and the Police. New York: Free Press.
5.
Berk, S.F. and D. Loseke.1981. "Handling Family Violence: Situational Determinants of Police Arrest in Domestic Disturbances." Law and Society Review15(2): 317-46.
6.
Binder, A., P. Scharf and R. Galvin.1982. Use of Deadly Force by Police Officers. Final Report. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
7.
Bittner, E.1970. The Functions of the Police in Modern Society. Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health .
8.
Black, D.1971. "The Social Organization of Arrest." Stanford Law Review23: 1087-1111.
9.
Black, D. and A.J. Reiss Jr.1970. "Police Control of Juveniles." American Sociological Review35: 63-77.
10.
Blumberg, M.1981. "Race and Police Shootings: An Analysis in Two Cities ." In Contemporary Issues in Law Enforcement, edited by J.J. Fyfe.Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
11.
. 1983. "The Use of Firearms by Police Officers: The Impact of Individuals, Communities, and Race." Ph.D. diss., State University of New York at Albany.
12.
Brown, M.K.1981. Working the Street: Police Discretion and the Dilemmas of Reform. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
13.
Clede, B. and K. Parsons.1987. Police Nonlethal Force Manual: Your Choices this Side of Deadly. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books.
14.
Cohen, B. and J.M. Chaiken.1972. Police Background Characteristics and Performance: Summary. New York: Rand Institute.
15.
Connor, G.J.1991. "Use of Force Continuum: Phase II." Law and Order March: 30-32.
16.
Crank, J.P.1993. "Legalistic and Order-Maintenance Behavior Among Police Patrol Officers: A Survey of Eight Municipal Police Agencies." American Journal of Police7: 103-26.
17.
Desmedt, J.C.1984. "Use of Force Paradigm for Law Enforcement." Journal of Police Science and Administration12: 170-76.
18.
Ericson, R.1982. Reproducing Order: A Study of Police Patrol Work . Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
19.
Fogelson, R.M.1977. Big City Police. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
20.
Fyfe, J.J.1978. "Shots Fired: An Examination of New York City Police Firearms Discharges." Ph.D. diss., State University of New York at Albany.
21.
—. 1980. "Geographic Correlates of Police Shootings: A Microanalysis ." Crime and Delinquency17: 101-13.
22.
—. 1988. "Police Use of Deadly Force: Research and Reform ." Justice Quarterly5(2): 165-205.
23.
Garner, J., T. Schade, J. Hepburn and J. Buchanan.1995. "Measuring the Continuum of Force Used by and Against the Police." Craminal Justice Review20(2): 146-68.
24.
Geller, W.A. and K. Karales.1981. Shootings of and by Chicago Police . ChicagoLaw Enforcement Study Group.
25.
Geller, W.A. and W. Toch.1995. And Justice for All: Understanding and Controlling Police Abuse of Force. Washington, DC: Police Executive Research Forum.
26.
Grennan, S.1987. "Findings on the Role of Officer Gender in Violent Encounters with Citizens." Journal of Police Science andAdministration15: 78-85.
27.
Horvath, F.1987. "The Police Use of Deadly Force: A Description of Selected Characteristics of Intrastate Incidents." Journal of Police Sciences and Administration15: 226-38.
28.
Jacobs, D. and R. O'Brien.1998. "The Determinants of Deadly Force: A Structural Analysis of Police Violence." American Journal of Sociology103(4): 837-62.
29.
Jenkins, B. and A. Faison.1974. An Analysis of 248 Persons Killed by New York City Policemen. New York: Metropolitan Applied Research Center.
30.
Kania, R.E. and W.C. Mackey.1977. "Police Violence as a Function of Community Characteristics." Criminology15(1): 27-48.
31.
Klinger, D.A.1994. "Demeanor or Crime? Why 'Hostile' Citizens are More Likely to be Arrested." Criminology32: 475-93.
32.
—. 1996. "More on Demeanor and Arrest in Dade County." Criminology34: 61-82.
33.
Kobler, A.1975. "Figures (and Perhaps Some Facts) on Police Killing of Citizens in the United States." Journal of Social Issues31: 185-91.
34.
Lundman, R.1974. "Routine Police Arrest Practices: A Commonweal Perspective ." Social Problems22: 127-41.
35.
Mann, C.R.1993. Unequal Justice: A Question of Color. Bloomington and Indianapolis, IN: University Press.
36.
Mastrofski, S., R. Parks, A.J. Reiss and R.E. Worden.1995. "Community Policing at the Street Level: A Study of the Police and the Community." Proposal submitted to the National Institute of Justice. Lansing, MI: Michigan State University.
37.
Matulia, K.J.1982. A Balance of Forces. Gaithersburg, MD: International Association of Chiefs of Police.
38.
Meyer, M.W.1980. "Police Shootings at Minorities: The Case of Los Angeles ." Annals of theAmerican Academy of Political and Social Sciences452: 89-110.
39.
Milton, C.H., J.S. Halleck, J. Lardner and G.L. Albrecht.1977. Police Use of Deadly Force. Washington, DC: Police Foundation.
40.
Piliavin, J. and S. Briar.1964. "Police Encounters with Juveniles." American Journal of Sociology70: 206-14.
41.
Reiner, R.1981. "Black and Blue: Race and the Police." New Society17: 466-69.
42.
Reiss, A.J., Jr. 1971. The Police and the Public. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
43.
—. 1972. "Police Brutality." In The Criminal in the Arms of the Law, Vol. 2, Crime and Justice, edited by L. Radzinowicz and M.E. Wolfgang.New York : Basic Books.
44.
—. 1980. "Police Brutality—Answers to Key Questions ." Pp. 10-19 in Law and Order Police Encounters, edited by M. Lipinsky.New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine.
45.
Reiss, A.J., Jr., and J. Roth.1993. Understanding and Preventing Violence . Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
46.
Riksheim, E.C. and S.M. Chermak.1993. "Causes of Police Behavior Revisited ." Journal of Criminal Justice21 (4): 353-82.
47.
Robin, G.D.1963. "Justifiable Homicide by Police Officers. Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science54: 225-31.
Sherman, L.1980. "Causes of Police Behavior: The Current State of Quantitative Research." Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency17: 69-100.
50.
Smith, D.A.1984. "The Organizational Aspects of Legal Control." Criminology22: 19-38.
51.
—. 1986. "The Neighborhood Context of Police Behavior." In Crime and Justice: An Annual Review of Research. Vol. 8A. Edited by A.J. Reiss Jr. and M. Tonry.New York: Basic Books.
52.
—. 1987. "Police Response to Interpersonal Violence: Defining the Parameters of Legal Control." Social Forces65: 767-82.
53.
Smith, D.A. and L.A. Davidson.1984. "Equity and Discretionary Justice: The Influence of Race on Police Arrest Decisions." Journal of Criminal Law75: 234-49.
54.
Smith, D.A. and J.R. Klein.1983. "Police Agency Characteristics and Arrest Decisions." In Evaluating Performance of Criminal Justice Agencies , edited by G.D. Whitaker and C.D. Phillips.Beverly Hills : Sage.
55.
Smith, D.A. and C. Visher.1981. "Street-Level Justice: Situational Determinants of Police Arrest Decisions." Social Problems31: 167-77.
56.
Sykes, R.E. and E.E. Brent.1980. "The Regulation of Interaction by Police: A Systems View of Taking Charge." Criminology18(2): 182-97.
57.
Takagi, P.1974. "A Garrison State in a 'Democratic' Society." Crime and Social Justice: A Journal of Radical Criminology5: 27-33.
58.
Toch, H.H.1969. Violent Men: An Inquiry into the Psychology of Violence . Chicago: Aldine.
59.
Visher, C.A.1983. "Gender, Police Arrest Decisions, and Notions of Chivalry ." Criminology21: 5-28.
60.
Walker, S., C. Spohn and M. Delone.1996. The Color of Justice: Race, Ethnicity, and Crime in America. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.
61.
Wilson, J.Q.1968. Varieties of Police Behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
62.
Worden, R.E.1989. "Situational and Attitudinal Explanations of Police Behavior: A Theoretical Reappraisal and Empirical Assessment." Law and Society Review23: 667-711.
63.
—. 1995. "The 'Causes' of Police Brutality: Theory and Evidence on Police Use of Force." Pp. 31-60 in And Justice for All: Understandingand Controlling PoliceAbuse of Force, edited by W. Geller and H. Toch.Washington, DC: Police Executive Research Forum.
