Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

Persons with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) are disproportionately affected by both violent crime and police misuse of force. Despite this, there is limited organizational knowledge around policing policies relating to this community. The current study employs data from the 2020 Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics survey (n = 2063) to examine whether organizational characteristics such as size, number of specialized units, and the extent to which the organization solicits community input on policing issues are associated with odds of possessing a formal written policy relating to persons with IDD. Findings suggest that factors relating to community policing and the formulation of policies for other specialized subpopulations were associated with odds of organizations maintaining such policies. There is a need to develop more nuanced policies which reflect the diversity of this community while also ensuring that stakeholders from the disability community are involved as co-producers of policies.

Keywords

intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD)disability policy police

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Abadie

Athey

Imbens

G. W.

Wooldridge

J. M.

(2023). When should you adjust standard errors for clustering? Quarterly Journal of Economics, 138(1), 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjac038

Alexander

K. D.

Nowacki

J. S.

(2022). Women in power? Examining gender and promotion in policing through an organizational perspective. Feminist Criminology, 17(2), 293–311. https://doi.org/10.1177/15570851211061744

American Association of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities . (2022). https://www.aaidd.org/

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) . (1990). Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. 42 U.S.C. § 12101 et seq.

Bruce

(2024). Erie County restarts special needs registry. Why it helps first responders. GoErie. https://www.goerie.com/story/news/healthcare/2024/09/18/erie-county-911-special-needs-registry-assists-first-responders/75260403007/

Burt

(2022). Salt Lake City settles lawsuit with family of autistic teen shot by police in 2020. Fox 13 Salt Lake City. https://www.fox13now.com/news/local-news/salt-lake-city-settles-lawsuit-with-famly-of-autistic-teen-shot-by-police-in-2020

Calton

Hall

(2022). Autistic adults and their experiences with police personnel: A qualitative inquiry. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law: An Interdisciplinary Journal of the Australian and New Zealand Association of Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 29(2), 274–289. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2021.1904455

CDC . (2020). Disability and health overview. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Charlton

J. I.

(1998). Nothing about us without us: Disability oppression and empowerment. University of California Press.

10.

Christiansen

Minich

N. M.

Clark

(2023). Pilot survey: Police understanding of autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 53(2), 738–745. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-04968-z

11.

Copenhaver

Tewksbury

(2019). Interactions between autistic individuals and law enforcement: A mixed-methods exploratory study. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 44(2), 309–333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-018-9452-8

12.

Darroch

Mazerolle

(2013). Intelligence-led policing: A comparative analysis of organizational factors influencing innovation uptake. Police Quarterly, 16(1), 3–37. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611112467411

13.

Debbaudt

Rothman

(2001). Contact with individuals with autism: Effective resolutions. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 70(4), 20.

14.

Delahunty

O’Hare

Marryat

Stewart

T. M.

McKenzie

Murray

Kaza

(2022). Exploring the extent to which Intellectual Disability is undiagnosed within children attending developmental paediatric clinics. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 131, Article 104359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2022.104359

15.

Eitle

(2005). The influence of mandatory arrest policies, police organizational characteristics, and situational variables on the probability of arrest in domestic violence cases. Crime & Delinquency, 51(4), 573–597. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128705277784

16.

Ellem

Richards

(2018). Police contact with young people with cognitive disabilities: Perceptions of procedural (in) justice. Youth Justice, 18(3), 230–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/1473225418794357

17.

Feldman

Wisniewski

(2024). Nothing about us without us: Equity-based principles for inclusive disability research. RTI International. https://www.rti.org/insights/nothing-about-us-without-us-disability-research-principles

18.

French

Daley

Groom

Cassidy

(2023). Risks associated with undiagnosed ADHD and/or autism: A mixed-method systematic review. Journal of Attention Disorders, 27(12), 1393–1410. https://doi.org/10.1177/10870547231176862

19.

Gardner

A. M.

(2022). Census of state and local law enforcement agencies, 2018 – statistical tables. US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.

20.

Gill

Weisburd

Telep

C. W.

Vitter

Bennett

(2014). Community-oriented policing to reduce crime, disorder and fear and increase satisfaction and legitimacy among citizens: A systematic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 10(4), 399–428. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-014-9210-y

21.

Gillooly

J. W.

Thacher

(2024). How the public became the caller: The emergence of reactive policing, 1880–1970. Law & Social Inquiry, 49(4), 2287–2319. https://doi.org/10.1017/lsi.2024.9

22.

Godfrey

White

Rodriguiez

(2024). How research can improve disability access in the legal system. Pew. https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/articles/2024/02/05/how-research-can-improve-disability-access-in-the-legal-system

23.

Harrell

(2017). Crime against persons with disabilities, 2009-2015-Statistical tables. US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.

24.

Hawkins

D. S.

(2023). Overlooked and undercounted: Communication and police brutality against people with disabilities. In Jeffress

M. S.

Cypher

J. M.

Ferris

Scott-Pollock

J. J.

(Eds.), The palgrave handbook of disability and communication (pp. 385–399). Springer International Publishing.

25.

Hayes

DeKeseredy

Nolan

(2024). People with disabilities and violent victimization in the heartland: Results from the first phase of the West Virginia Community Quality of Life Survey. International Journal of Rural Criminology, 8(2), 167–186. https://doi.org/10.18061/ijrc.v8i2.9555

26.

Henshaw

Thomas

(2012). Police encounters with people with intellectual disability: Prevalence, characteristics and challenges. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research: Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 56(6), 620–631. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2011.01502.x

27.

Herbert

Pelletier

Wallace

(2022). The informal, nonorganizational ways police officers receive training on encounters with autistic individuals. Policing: An International Journal, 45(3), 466–480. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-10-2021-0143

28.

Hinkle

K. A.

Lerman

D. C.

(2023). Preparing law enforcement officers to engage successfully with individuals with autism spectrum disorder: An evaluation of a performance-based approach. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 53(3), 887–900. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-05192-5

29.

Holland

Clare

I. C. H.

Mukhopadhyay

(2002). Prevalence of ‘criminal offending’ by men and women with intellectual disability and the characteristics of ‘offenders’: Implications for research and service development. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research: Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 46(Suppl 1), 6–20. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2788.2002.00001.x

30.

Huff

(2021). Understanding police decisions to arrest: The impact of situational, officer, and neighborhood characteristics on police discretion. Journal of Criminal Justice, 75, Article 101829. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2021.101829

31.

Informed police response . (2023). Law enforcement response to people with developmental disabilities: Steps for deflection or pre-arrest diversion. https://www.informedpoliceresponses.com/_files/ugd/e7007a_2d186ab816cb488698043a19a0c40af9.pdf

32.

International Association of Chiefs of Police . (n.d.). Interactions with individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities. https://www.theiacp.org/resources/policy-center-resource/intellectual-and-developmental-disabilities

33.

Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research [ICPSR] . (2023). Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics (LEMAS), 2020. ICPSR 38651. https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/web/ICPSR/studies/38651

34.

Jurek

A. L.

King

W. R.

(2020). Structural responses to gendered social problems: Police agency adaptations to human trafficking. Police Quarterly, 23(1), 25–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611119873093

35.

Kaur

Toropin

(2020). A 13-year-old boy with autism was shot by police after his mother called for help managing a ‘mental breakdown’. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2020/09/08/us/salt-lake-city-police-shoot-boy-autism-trnd/index.html

36.

King

W. R.

(1999). Time, constancy, and change in American municipal police organizations. Police Quarterly, 2(3), 338–364. https://doi.org/10.1177/109861119900200305

37.

King

Murphy

G. H.

(2014). A systematic review of people with autism spectrum disorder and the criminal justice system. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(11), 2712–2733. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2046-5

38.

Ledingham

Wright

G. W.

Mitra

(2022). Sexual violence against women with disabilities: Experiences with force and lifetime risk. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 62(6), 895–902. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2021.12.015

39.

Lin

Whittingham

Busch

Calzavara

Kouyoumdjian

Durbin

Matheson

F. I.

Dastoori

Volpe

Lunsky

(2022). Intensive use of forensic inpatient services by people with intellectual and developmental disabilities in Ontario, Canada: Prevalence and associated characteristics. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, Advance online publication, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/14999013.2022.2027047

40.

Maguire

E. R.

(2003). Organizational structure in American police agencies: Context, complexity, and control. SUNY Press.

41.

Mailhot Amborski

Bussières

E.-L.

Vaillancourt-Morel

M.-P.

Joyal

C. C.

(2021). Sexual violence against persons with disabilities: A meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 23(4), 1330–1343. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838021995975

42.

Maruschak

L. M.

Bronson

Alper

(2021). Disabilities reported by prisoners: Survey of prison inmates, 2016. U.S. Department of Justice.

43.

McKesson

Sinyangwe

Elzie

Packnett

(2016). Police use of force policy analysis. https://oag.ca.gov/sites/all/files/agweb/pdfs/ripa/policy-analysis-sinyangwe.pdf

44.

Mitter

Ali

Scior

(2019). Stigma experienced by families of individuals with intellectual disabilities and autism: A systematic review. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 89(2019), 10–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2019.03.001

45.

Mogavero

M. C.

(2020). An exploratory examination of intellectual disability and mental illness associated with alleged false confessions. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 38(4), 299–316. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2463

46.

Morabito

(2010). Understanding community policing as an innovation: Patterns of adoption. Crime & Delinquency, 56(4), 564–587. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128707311643

47.

Morabito

M. S.

Savage

Sneider

Wallace

(2018). Police response to people with mental illnesses in a major US city: The Boston experience with the co-responder model. Victims and Offenders, 13(8), 1093–1105. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2018.1514340

48.

Morgan

J. N.

(2021). Policing under disability law. Stanford Law Review, 73(6), 1401–1470.

49.

Nix

Campbell

B. A.

Byers

E. H.

Alpert

G. P.

(2017). A bird's eye view of civilians killed by police in 2015: Further evidence of implicit bias. Criminology & Public Policy, 16(1), 309–340. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12269

50.

Nowacki

Schafer

J. A.

Hibdon

(2021). Workforce diversity in police hiring: The influence of organizational characteristics. Justice Evaluation Journal, 4(1), 48–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/24751979.2020.1759379

51.

Nowacki

Willits

(2020). An organizational approach to understanding police response to cybercrime. Policing: An International Journal, 43(1), 63–76. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-07-2019-0117

52.

Nowacki

J. S.

(2015). Organizational-level police discretion: An application for police use of lethal force. Crime & Delinquency, 61(5), 643–668. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128711421857

53.

Nowacki

J. S.

Olivarez

Hagan

Hogan

(2024). Police agencies and civil asset forfeiture: An organizational perspective. Journal of Policy Practice, 18. Advance Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paae035

54.

Nowacki

J. S.

Spencer

(2019). Police discretion, organizational characteristics, and traffic stops: An analysis of racial disparity in Illinois. International Journal of Police Science and Management, 21(1), 4–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461355719832617

55.

Nowacki

J. S.

Willits

(2018). Adoption of body cameras by United States police agencies: An organisational analysis. Policing and Society, 28(7), 841–853. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2016.1267175

56.

Office of Justice Programs . (2022). Examining crisis response: Survey results from the largest municipal police agencies in the United States. https://www.ojp.gov/library/publications/examining-crisis-response-survey-results-largest-municipal-police-agencies

57.

Pahnila

Siponen

Mahmood

(2007). Which factors explain employees’ adherence to information security policies? An empirical study. PACIS 2007 Proceedings, 73. https://aisel.aisnet.org/pacis2007/73

58.

Parry

M. M.

Huff

(2022). Divergent perspectives: Autistic adults' perceptions of the police. Policing: An International Journal, 45(3), 509–523. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-10-2021-0144

59.

Perry

D. M.

Carter-Long

(2016). The Ruderman white paper on media coverage of law enforcement use of force and disability. Ruderman Family Foundation. https://rudermanfoundation.org/white_papers/media-coverage-of-law-enforcement-use-of-force-and-disability/

60.

Prenzler

Porter

Alpert

G. P.

(2013). Reducing police use of force: Case studies and prospects. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18(2), 343–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.12.004

61.

Pridemore

W. A.

Makel

M. C.

Plucker

J. A.

(2018). Replication in criminology and the social sciences. Annual Review of Criminology, 1(1), 19–38. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-criminol-032317-091849

62.

Pryor

Boman IV

J. H.

Mowen

T. J.

McCamman

(2019). A national study of sustained use of force complaints in law enforcement agencies. Journal of Criminal Justice, 64, Article 101623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2019.101623

63.

Railey

K. S.

Bowers-Campbell

Love

A. M.

Campbell

J. M.

(2020). An exploration of law enforcement officers’ training needs and interactions with individuals with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50(1), 101–117. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-04227-2

64.

Railey

K. S.

Love

A. M.

Campbell

J. M.

(2020). A systematic review of law enforcement training related to autism spectrum disorder. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 35(4), 221–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357620922152

65.

Rava

Shattuck

Rast

Roux

(2017). The prevalence and correlates of involvement in the criminal justice system among youth on the autism spectrum. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(2), 340–346. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2958-3

66.

Reaves

B. A.

(2015). Local police departments, 2013: Personnel, policies, and practices. United States Department of Justice. Bureau of Justice Statistics.

67.

Ross

H. M.

Bowman

D. M.

Wani

J. M.

(2022). Voluntary registries to support improved interaction between police and people living with dementia. Journal of Law Medicine & Ethics: A Journal of the American Society of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 50(2), 348–363. https://doi.org/10.1017/jme.2022.62

68.

Rowe

Dowse

Baker

Baldry

(2022). Policing disability: Alliance building, police divestment and community investment. Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 34(2), 171–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345329.2022.2029084

69.

Salekin

K. L.

Olley

J. G.

Hedge

K. A.

(2010). Offenders with intellectual disability: Characteristics, prevalence, and issues in forensic assessment. Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 3(2), 97–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/19315861003695769

70.

Schatz

S. J.

(2018). Interrogated with intellectual disabilities: The risks of false confession. Stanford Law Review, 70(2), 643–690. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A531979156/AONE?u=anon∼15b24aea&sid=googleScholar&xid=19315f7a

71.

Sinyangwe

(2016). Examining the role of use of force policies in ending police violence. Available at SSRN 2841872. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2841872

72.

Syma

(2018). Invisible disabilities: Perceptions and barriers to reasonable accommodations in the workplace. Library Management, 40(1/2), 113–120. https://doi.org/10.1108/LM-10-2017-0101

73.

Terrill

Paoline

E. A.

III (2017). Police use of less lethal force: Does administrative policy matter? Justice Quarterly, 34(2), 193–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2016.1147593

74.

The Arc . (n.d.). Policy brief: Law enforcement registries for individuals with disabilities. https://thearc.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/18-086-Law-Enforcement-Registries-Resource-Sheet_v3.pdf

75.

Thomas

K. J.

Collins

P. A.

Lovrich

N. P.

(2010). Conducted energy device use in municipal policing: Results of a national survey on policy and effectiveness assessments. Police Quarterly, 13(3), 290–315. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611110373995

76.

Uding

C. V.

Moon

H. R.

Lum

(2024). The status of co-responders in law enforcement: Findings from a national survey of law enforcement agencies. Policing: An International Journal. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-04-2024-0062

77.

United States Department of Justice . (2020). Office of justice programs. Bureau of justice statistics. Law Enforcement management and Administrative Statistics (LEMAS). Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor]. https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR38651.v1

78.

Usher

Watson

A. C.

Bruno

Andriukaitis

Kamin

Speed

Taylor

(2019). Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) programs: A best practice guide for transforming community responses to mental health crises. Memphis: CIT International.

79.

Vega

Peacock

R. P.

(2024). Police–disabled citizen interactions: Testing the role of disability awareness training and experience on officer confidence. Disability & Society, 39(7), 1765–1781. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2023.2164847

80.

Venema

R. M.

(2018). Police officers’ rape myth acceptance: Examining the role of officer characteristics, estimates of false reporting, and social desirability bias. Violence & Victims, 33(1), 176–200. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.33.1.176

81.

Viljoen

Bornman

Wiles

Tönsing

K. M.

(2017). Police officer disability sensitivity training: A systematic review. The Police Journal: Theory, Practice and Principles, 90(2), 143–159. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032258x16674021

82.

Wallace

(2020). Criminology, criminal justice, and 30 years of the Americans with Disabilities Act: Where is the research from our field? The Criminologist, 46(2), 1–6.

83.

Wallace

Hassrick

E. M.

(2021). Police contact with individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities: A special issue introduction. Policing, 45(3), 385–392.

84.

White

M. D.

(2001). Controlling police decisions to use deadly force: Reexamining the importance of administrative policy. Crime & Delinquency, 47(1), 131–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128701047001006

85.

Whitehead

(2023). Deadly discrimination: Police-involved deaths and mental health disability in Canada. Doctoral dissertation, Université d'Ottawa/University of Ottawa.

86.

Woodbury-Smith

Dein

(2014). Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and unlawful behaviour: Where do we go from here? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(11), 2734–2741. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2216-5

87.

(2021). Leadership matters: Police chief race and fatal shootings by police officers. Social Science Quarterly, 102(1), 407–419. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12900

Correlates of Police Policies for Persons With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (IDD): An Organizational Analysis

Abstract

Keywords

Get full access to this article

References