Community policing relies on communication and dialogue to break down barriers between police and communities. Community policing is implicitly premised on the notion that for relationships between police and communities to improve, both sides need to find ways to accommodate one another. These ideas are consistent with Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT), which focuses on the communicative mechanisms through which people accommodate or fail to accommodate one another. Genuine listening is a key mechanism for accommodating others. Drawing on CAT, we explore a community policing initiative called Hearts and Minds that was developed and implemented in Trinidad and Tobago, a Caribbean nation that has experienced a significant outbreak of violence over the past two decades. Our qualitative analysis relies on interviews with police officers. Based on this analysis, we discuss the importance of listening in police-community dialogue. We also discuss the implications of this research for theory, research, and practice.
AdamsE. B.MorrisP. K.MaguireE. R. (2021). The impact of gangs on community life in Trinidad. Race and Justice, 11(4), 543–566. https://doi.org/10.1177/2153368718820577
2.
AllportG. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Addison Wesley.
3.
AutyR. M. (2019). Natural resources and small island economies: Mauritius and Trinidad and Tobago. In PapyrakisE. (Ed.), Why does development fail in resource rich economies (pp. 90–103). Routledge.
4.
BakerS. C.WatsonB. M. (2015). How patients perceive their doctors’ communication: Implications for patient willingness to communicate. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 34(6), 621–639. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X15587015
5.
BarlowM.WatsonB.JonesE.MaccallumF.MorseK. J. (2023b). The influence of professional identity on how the receiver receives and responds to a speaking up message: A cross-sectional study. BMC Nursing, 22(1), 26. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-023-01178-z
6.
BarlowM.WatsonB.MorseK.JonesE.MaccallumF. (2023a). React, reframe and engage: Establishing a receiver mindset for more effective safety negotiations. Journal of Health Organization and Management. Published online ahead of print. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHOM-06-2023-0171
7.
BayleyD. H. (1994). Police for the future. Oxford University Press.
8.
BayleyD. H.MendelsohnH. (1969). Minorities and the police: Confrontation in America. The Free Press.
9.
BittnerE. (1975). The impact of police-community relations on the police system. In GearyD. P. (Ed.), Community relations and the administration of justice (pp. 369–389). Wiley.
10.
BlairG.WeinsteinJ. M.ChristiaF.AriasE.BadranE.BlairR. A.CheemaA.FarooquiA.FetzerT.GrossmanG.HaimD.HameedZ.HansonR.HasanainA.KronickD.MorseB. S.MuggahR.NadeemF.TsaiL. L.WilkeA. M. (2021). Community policing does not build citizen trust in police or reduce crime in the Global South. Science, 374(6571), Article eabd3446. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abd3446
11.
BreretonB. (1996). An introduction to the history of Trinidad and Tobago. Heinemann.
12.
BruneauE. G.SaxeR. (2012). The power of being heard: The benefits of ‘perspective giving’ in the context of intergroup conflict. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(4), 855–866. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.02.017
13.
BrunsonR. K.MillerJ. (2009). Schools, neighborhoods, and adolescent conflicts: A situational examination of reciprocal dynamics. Justice Quarterly, 26(2), 183–210. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820802245060
14.
CharmazK. (2015). Teaching theory construction with initial grounded theory tools: A reflection on lessons and learning. Qualitative Health Research, 25(12), 1610–1622. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732315613982
15.
CharmazK.ThornbergR.KeaneE. (2018). Evolving grounded theory and social justice inquiry. In DenzinN. K.LincolnY. S. (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (5th ed., pp. 411–443). Sage.
16.
ChevignyP. G. (1990). Police deadly force as social control: Jamaica, Argentina, and Brazil. Criminal Law Forum, 1(3), 389–425. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01098174
17.
ChoiC.KhajavyH.RaddawiR.GilesH. (2019). Perceptions of police-civilian encounters: Intergroup and communication dimensions in the United Arab Emirates and the USA. Journal of International and Intercultural Communication, 12(1), 82–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/17513057.2018.1503317
18.
ConradD. A.AliA. N. (2019). Corruption as an impediment to diversification: The case of Trinidad and Tobago. In BissessarA. (Ed.), Development, political, and economic difficulties in the Caribbean (pp. 83–102). Palgrave Macmillan.
19.
CordnerG. W. (1997). Community policing: Elements and effects. In DunhamR. G.AlpertG. P. (Eds.), Critical issues in policing: Contemporary readings (3rd ed., pp. 401–418). Waveland.
20.
DixonT. L.SchellT. L.GilesH.DrogosK. L. (2008). The influence of race in police–civilian interactions: A content analysis of videotaped interactions taken during Cincinnati police traffic stops. Journal of Communication, 58(3), 530–549. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.00398.x
21.
EllerA.AbramsD.VikiG. T.ImaraD. A.PeerbuxS. (2007). Stay cool, hang loose, admit nothing: Race, intergroup contact, and public-police relations. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 29(3), 213–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973530701503036
22.
FarzadniaS.GilesH. (2015). Patient-provider interaction: A communication accommodation theory perspective. International Journal of Society, Culture & Language, 3(2), 17–34.
23.
GalloisC.GasiorekJ.GilesH.SolizJ. (2016). Communication accommodation theory: Integrations and new framework developments. In GilesH. (Ed.), Communication accommodation theory: Negotiating personal relationships and social identities across contexts (pp. 192–210). Cambridge University Press.
24.
GalloisC.OgayT.GilesH. (2005). Communication accommodation theory: A look back and a look ahead. In GudykunstW. B. (Ed.), Theorizing about intercultural communication (pp. 121–148). Sage.
25.
GasiorekJ. (2016). The “dark side” of CAT: Nonaccommodation. In GilesH. (Ed.), Communication accommodation theory: Negotiating personal relationships and social identities across contexts (pp. 85–104). Cambridge University Press.
26.
GasiorekJ.HubbardA. S. E. (2017). Perspectives on perspective-taking in communication research. Review of Communication, 17(2), 87–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/15358593.2017.1293837
GilesH.EdwardsA. L.WaltherJ. B. (2023a). Communication accommodation theory: Past accomplishments, current trends, and future prospects. Language Sciences, 99, 101571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langsci.2023.101571
29.
GilesH.FortmanJ.DaileyR. M.BarkerV.HajekC.AndersonM. C.RuleN. O. (2006). Communication accommodation: Law enforcement and the public. In DaileyR. M.Le PoireB. A. (Eds.), Applied interpersonal communication matters: Family, health, & community relations (pp. 241–269). Peter Lang.
30.
GilesH.LinzD.BonillaD.GomezM. L. (2012). Police stops of and interactions with Latino and White (Non-Latino) drivers: Extensive policing and communication accommodation. Communication Monographs, 79(4), 407–427. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2012.723815
31.
GilesH.MaguireE. R.HillS. L. (2023b). The police and those policed as intergroup par excellence: Current trends and future prospects. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 26(4), 781–795. https://doi.org/10.1177/13684302221142317
32.
GilesH.MaguireE. R.HillS. L. (2024). Policing at the crossroads: An intergroup communication accommodation perspective. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. https://doi.org/10.1177/13684302241245639
33.
GilesH.PoweslandP. F. (1975). Speech style and social evaluation. Academic Press.
34.
GilesH.TaylorD. M.BourhisR. (1973). Towards a theory of interpersonal accommodation through language: Some Canadian data. Language in Society, 2(2), 177–192. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404500000701
35.
GillC.WeisburdD.TelepC. W.VitterZ.BennettT. (2014). Community-oriented policing to reduce crime, disorder and fear and increase satisfaction and legitimacy among citizens: A systematic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 10(4), 399–428. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-014-9210-y
36.
GlebbeekM. (2010). Mano dura: Fighting crime, violence, and insecurity with an iron fist in Central America. In KuhnsJ. B.KnutssonJ. (Eds.), Police use of force: A global perspective (pp. 63–72). Praeger.
37.
GreeneJ. R. (2000). Community policing in America: Changing the nature, structure, and function of the police. In HorneyJ. (Ed.), Criminal justice 2000: Policies, processes, and decisions of the criminal justice system (Vol. 3, pp. 299–370). National Institute of Justice.
38.
HajekC.GilesH.BarkerV.LinM. C.ZhangY. B.Lee HummertM. (2008). Expressed trust and compliance in police‐civilian encounters: The role of communication accommodation in Chinese and American settings. Chinese Journal of Communication, 1(2), 168–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/17544750802287935
39.
HarriottA. (2000). Police and crime control in Jamaica: Problems of reforming ex-colonial constabularies. University of the West Indies Press.
40.
HaywardL. E.HornseyM. J.TroppL. R.BarlowF. K. (2017). Positive and negative intergroup contact predict Black and White Americans’ judgments about police violence against Black Americans. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 47(11), 605–615. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12463
41.
HillS.GilesH.MaguireE. R. (2021). VOICES: A theory-driven intervention for improving relationships between police and the public. Policing: An International Journal, 44(5), 786–799. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-09-2020-0154
42.
HillS. L.GilesH.MaguireE. R. (2023). Community relations and policing: A communication accommodation theory perspective. In StallerM. S.KoernerS.ZaiserB. (Eds.), Police conflict management (Vol. 1, pp. 315–342). Palgrave Macmillan.
InzunzaM.BrownG. T. L.StenlundT.WikströmC. (2022). The relationship between subconstructs of empathy and general cognitive ability in the context of policing. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 907610. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.907610
45.
JohnsonD.MaguireE. R.KuhnsJ. B. (2022). Can community policing reduce perceived disorder? Results from a quasi-experiment in Trinidad and Tobago. Policing and Society, 32(7), 911–930. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2021.1998048
46.
KellingG. L.PateA.FerraraA.UtneM.BrownC. E. (1981). The Newark foot patrol experiment. Police Foundation.
47.
KellyM. D. A. (2023). The changing terrain of racial inequality in Trinidad and Tobago. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 86, 100826. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2023.100826
48.
KleinG.KleinH. A.LandeB.BordersJ.WhitacreJ. C. (2015). Police and military as good strangers. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 88(2), 231–250. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12110
MaguireE. R. (1997). Structural change in large municipal police organizations during the community policing era. Justice Quarterly, 14(3), 547–576. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829700093471
53.
MaguireE. R. (2021). The role of communication reform in community policing. In GilesH.MaguireE. R.HillS. L. (Eds.), The Rowman & Littlefield handbook of policing, communication, and society (pp. 153–172). Rowman & Littlefield.
54.
MaguireE. R. (2024). Gang research in the caribbean. In PyroozD. C.DensleyJ. A.LeversoJ. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of gangs and society (pp. 351–374). Oxford University Press.
55.
MaguireE. R.GilesH. (2022). Public expressions of empathy and sympathy by U.S. criminal justice officials after controversial police killings of African-Americans. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 41(1), 49–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X211057238
56.
MaguireE. R.JohnsonD.KuhnsJ. B.ApostolosR. (2019). The effects of community policing on fear of crime and perceived safety: Findings from a pilot project in Trinidad and Tobago. Policing and Society, 29(5), 491–510. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2017.1294177
57.
MaguireE. R.WellsW. (2002). Community policing as communication reform. In GilesH. (Ed.), Law enforcement, communication, and community (pp. 33–66). John Benjamins.
58.
MaguireE. R.WillisJ. A.SnipesJ.GantleyM. (2008). Spatial concentrations of violence in Trinidad and Tobago. Caribbean Journal of Criminology and Public Safety, 13(1&2), 48–92.
59.
MakinD. A.MareninO. (2017). Let’s dance: Variations of partnerships in community policing. Policing, 11(4), paw053. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paw053
60.
MalloyT. E.GoldfieldB.KlugerA. N. (2024). Mothers listen to children and uniquely accommodate their language with them. International Journal of Listening, 38(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/10904018.2021.1993069
61.
NuñoL. E.HillS. L.MaguireE. R.GilesH. (2023). Experiencing VOICES: Police and public reactions to an intergroup communication intervention. Police Practice and Research, 24(6), 631–645. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2022.2147069
PalomaresN. A.GilesH.SolizJ.GalloisC. (2016). Intergroup accommodation, social categories, and identities. In GilesH. (Ed.), Communication accommodation theory: Negotiating personal relationships and social identities across contexts (pp. 123–152). Cambridge University Press.
PettigrewT. F.TroppL. R. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(5), 751–783. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751
RoulstonK. (2014). Analyzing interviews. In FlickU. (Ed.), The Sage handbook of qualitative data analysis (pp. 297–312). Sage.
68.
ScheiderM. C.ChapmanR.SchapiroA. (2009). Towards the unification of policing innovations under community policing. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 32(4), 694–718. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510911000777
69.
SchneiderS. R. (1998). Overcoming barriers to communication between police and socially disadvantaged neighbourhoods: A critical theory of community policing. Crime, Law and Social Change, 30(4), 347–377. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008382621747
70.
ShermanL. W.MiltonC. H.KellyT. V. (1973). Team policing: Seven case studies. Police Foundation.
71.
SkolnickJ. H.BayleyD. H. (1988). Theme and variation in community policing. Crime and Justice, 10, 1–37. https://doi.org/10.1086/449142
72.
StreetR. L.GilesH. (1982). Speech accommodation theory: A social cognitive approach to language and speech behaviour. In RoloffM.BergerC. (Eds.), Social cognition and communication (pp. 193–226). Sage.
73.
TajfelH. (1972). La catégorisation sociale. In MoscoviciS. (Ed.), Introduction à la psychologie sociale (Vol. 1, pp. 272–302). Larousse.
74.
ThielgenM. M.SchadeS. (2023). The nonverbal behavior and appearance of police officers in the police service. In StallerM. S.KoernerS.ZaiserB. (Eds.), Police conflict management (Vol. 1, pp. 249–283). Palgrave Macmillan.
Vila-HenningerL. A. (2019). Turning talk into “rationales”: Using the extended case method for the coding and analysis of semi-structured interview data in ATLAS.ti. Bulletin of Sociological Methodology, 143(1), 28–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/0759106319852887
79.
WalkerS. (1993). Does anyone remember team policing? Lessons of the team policing experience for community policing. American Journal of Police, 12(1), 33–56.
80.
WatsonB.GalloisC. (1998). Nurturing communication by health professionals toward patients: A communication accommodation theory approach. Health Communication, 10(4), 343–355. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327027hc1004_3
81.
WilsonD. B.ParksR. B.MastrofskiS. D. (2011). The impact of police reform on communities of Trinidad and Tobago. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 7(4), 375–405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-011-9131-y
