Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

Positive behavior interventions and supports (PBIS) is a tiered framework that enhances the quality of learning conditions and delivers social–emotional–behavioral interventions. Positive behavior interventions and supports uses a cascade system delivery that includes resources from the federal, state, district, and local levels, including policy and its associated funding. A relevant law that impacts PBIS implementation is the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). Every Student Succeeds Act considers school quality in required state-level plans and directly references multitier system of support (MTSS) and PBIS. This study analyzed the content of Section 6.1.C of U.S. state-level plans that address the reduction of bullying, overuse of discipline that removes students from the classroom, and the use of aversive behavioral interventions that compromise student health and safety. Of interest was how plans referenced PBIS/MTSS, or any tiered system. We implemented a text analysis using a consensual agreement coding process to reveal patterns. The analysis suggested that: (a) states had unique profiles of policy and strategies, (b) structuring the plans to address specific school conditions directly may yield a more intentional plan design, (c) the most frequently referenced strategy was state-sponsored products and resources, and (d) PBIS/MTSS was referenced in most narratives, but not always as a systemic way to organize interventions.

Keywords

law/legal issues legislation public policy MTSS PBIS

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Adler-Greene

(2019). Every Student Succeeds Act: Are schools making sure every student succeeds? Touro Law Review, 35, 11–23.

Allison

M. A.

Beers

Peterson

J. W.

(2023). AAP council on school health. Corporal punishment in schools. Pediatrics, 152(3), Article e2023063284. https://doi.org/e2023063284

Amsalu

Belay

(2024). Analyzing the contribution of school climate to academic achievement using structural equation modeling. Sage Open, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241227271

Barrenechea

Beech

Rivas

(2023). How can education systems improve? A systematic literature review. Journal of Educational Change, 24, 479–499. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-022-09453-7

Center on PBIS. (2025). Positive behavioral interventions and supports. District & State PBIS [Website]. https://www.pbis.org/topics/districtstate-pbis

Center on PBIS. (2023, July) Positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS) Implementation Blueprint. University of Oregon. https://www.pbis.org/resource/pbis-implementation-blueprint

Chan

LeBel

Webber

(2012). The dollars and sense of restraints and seclusion. Journal of Law and Medicine, 20(1), 73–81.

Chu

(2019). What are they talking about when they talk about equity? A content analysis of equity principles and provisions in state Every Student Succeeds Act plans. Education Policy Analysis and Archives, 27, 1–30. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.27.4558

Cornell

Shukla

Konold

(2016). Authoritative school climate and student academic engagement, grades, and aspirations in middle and high schools. AERA Open, 2, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858416633184

10.

Costenbader

Markson

(1998). School suspension: A study with secondary school students. Journal of School Psychology, 36(1), 59–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4405(97)00050-2

11.

DeVos

(2017). Key policy letters signed by the education secretary or deputy secretary. https://www2.ed.gov/print/policy/elsec/guid/secletter/170210.html

12.

Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015 (ESSA), 20 U.S.C.A. § 6301 et seq (2015).

13.

Fixsen

D. L.

Blase

K. A.

Naoom

S. F.

Wallace

(2012). Core implementation components. Research on Social Work Practice, 19(5),531–540. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731509335549

14.

Fixsen

D. L.

Naoom

S. F.

Blase

K. A.

Friedman

R. M.

Wallace

(2005). Implementation Research: A synthesis of the literature (FMHI #231). University of South Florida, Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute, The National Implementation Research Network.

15.

Hackmann

D. G.

Malin

J. R.

Braff

D. D.

(2019). An analysis of college and career readiness emphasis in ESSA state accountability plans. Education Policy Analysis and Archives, 27, 1–30. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.27.4441

16.

Heise

(2006). The political economy of education federalism. Cornell Law Faculty Publications, 56(1), 64. http://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/lsrp_papers/64

17.

Hill

C. E.

Thompson

B. J.

Williams

E. N.

(1997). A guide to conducting consensual qualitative research. The Counseling Psychologist, 25(4), 517–572. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000097254001

18.

Källmén

Hallgren

(2021). Bullying at school and mental health problems among adolescents: A repeated cross-sectional study. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 15, 74. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-021-00425-y

19.

Kaul

C. R.

Davis

B. K.

(2018). How the state education agencies addressed gifted education in the Title II of their ESSA state plans. Gifted Child Today, 41, 159–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/1076217518769700

20.

Kochel

K. P.

Ladd

G. W.

Rudolph

K. D.

(2012). Longitudinal associations among youth depressive symptoms, peer victimization, and low peer acceptance: An interpersonal process perspective. Child Development, 83(2), 637–650. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01722.x

21.

Konold

Cornell

Jia

Malone

(2018). School climate, student engagement, and academic achievement: A latent variable, multilevel multi-informant examination. AERA Open, 4, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/233285841881

22.

Kostyo

Cardichon

Darling-Hammond

(2018). Making ESSA’s equity promise real: State strategies to close the opportunity gap building a positive school climate (Research Brief). Learning Policy Institute. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED606523.pdf

23.

Lacoe

Steinberg

M. P.

(2019). Do suspensions affect student outcomes? Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 41(1), 34–62. https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373718794897

24.

LiCalsi

Osher

Bailey

(2021). An empirical examination of the effects of suspension and suspension severity on behavioral and academic outcomes. American Institutes for Research. https://www.cmhnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/NYC-Suspension-Effects-Behavioral-Academic-Outcomes-August-2021.pdf

25.

Losen

D. J.

Martinez

(2020). Lost opportunities: How disparate school discipline continues to drive differences in the opportunity to learn. The Center for Civil Rights Remedies & Learning Policy Institute. https://escholarship.org/content/qt7hm2456z/qt7hm2456z.pdf

26.

Marchbanks

Miner

Peguero

A. A.

Varela

K. S.

Blake

J. J.

Eason

J. M.

(2018). School strictness and disproportionate minority contact: Investigating racial and ethnic disparities with the “school-to-prison pipeline.” Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 16(2), 241–259. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204016680403

27.

May Institute. (2024). Improved outcomes for students with disabilities (Brief Published Online). https://www.pbis.org/resource/pbis-supports-students-with-disabilities-2

28.

McGuinn

(2019). Assessing state ESSA plans: Innovation or retreat? Kappan, 101(2), 8–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031721719879146

29.

Mitchell

M. M.

Bradshaw

C. P.

(2013). Examining classroom influences on student perceptions of school climate: The role of classroom management and exclusionary discipline strategies. Journal of School Psychology, 51(5), 599–610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2013.05.005

30.

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. 20 U.S.C. § 6301 et seq (2001).

31.

Noltemeyer

A. L.

Ward

R. M.

Mcloughlin

(2015). Relationship between school suspension and student outcomes: A meta-analysis. School Psychology Review, 44(2), 224–240. https://doi.org/10.17105/spr-14-0008.1

32.

Nunno

Holden

Tollar

(2006). Learning from tragedy: A survey of child and adolescent restraint fatalities. Child Abuse & Neglect, 30(12), 1333–1342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.02.015

33.

Pas

E. T.

Cash

A. H.

O’Brennan

Debnam

K. J.

Bradshaw

C. P.

(2015). Profiles of classroom behavior in high schools: Associations with teacher behavior management strategies and classroom composition. Journal of School Psychology, 53, 137–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2014.12.005

34.

Pokorski

E. A.

Barton

E. E.

(2021). A systematic review of the ethics of punishment-based procedures for young children with disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 42(4), 262–275. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932520918859

35.

Portz

Beauchamp

(2022). Educational accountability and state ESSA plans. Educational Policy, 36, 717–747. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904820917364

36.

Raffaele Mendez

L. M.

(2003). Predictors of suspension and negative school outcomes: A longitudinal investigation. New Directions for Youth Development, 99, 17–33. https://doi.org/10.1002/yd.52

37.

Rausch

M. K.

Skiba

R. J.

Simmons

A. B.

(2005, April). The academic cost of discipline: The relationship between suspension/expulsion and school achievement [Conference session]. Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal, QC, Canada.

38.

Rentner

D. S.

Kober

Frizzell

(2017). States reflect on year 1 implementation of ESSA. Center on Education Policy.

39.

Rumberger

R. W.

Losen

D. J.

(2016). The high cost of harsh discipline and its disparate impact. The Center for Civil Rights Remedies. https://escholarship.org/content/qt85m2m6sj/qt85m2m6sj.pdf

40.

Santiago-Rosario

M. R.

McIntosh

Izzard

Cohen-Lissman

Calhoun

T. E.

(2023). Is positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS) an evidence-based practice? Center on PBIS, University of Oregon. www.pbis.org

41.

Simonsen

Freeman

Gambino

A. J.

Sears

Meyer

Hoselton

(2022). An exploration of the relationship between PBIS and discipline outcomes for students with disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 43(5), 287–300. https://doi.org/10.1177/07419325211063490

42.

Skiba

R. J.

Arredondo

M. I.

Williams

N. T.

(2014). More than a metaphor: The contribution of exclusionary discipline to a school-to-prison pipeline. Equity & Excellence in Education, 47(4), 546–564. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2014.958965

43.

U.S. Const. art. I, § 8, clause 1.

44.

U.S. Department of Education. (2017). Transitioning to the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA): Frequently asked questions. https://oese.ed.gov/files/2020/02/essatransitionfaqs11817.pdf

45.

Wang

M. T.

Degol

J. L.

(2016). School climate: A review of the construct, measurement, and impact on student outcomes. Educational Psychology Review, 28, 315–352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9319-1

An Analysis of State Education Agency Responses to ESSA Title IV Part A Section 6.1.C School Conditions

Abstract

Keywords

Get full access to this article

References