The present study evaluated the effectiveness of the First Step to Success (FSS) early intervention program with Turkish children identified with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Intervention effectiveness on target children’s academic engagement behaviors was studied. Participants were four 7-year-old first-grade students in Ankara, the capital city of Turkey. The design was a single-subject, multiple-baseline, across-groups design. Findings from the study revealed that all target children displayed increased levels of academic engagement behaviors with the introduction of the FSS program and at 3 months’ follow-up. However, follow-up data at 2 years indicated that although three students continued to display high levels of academic engagement behavior, one student did not catch up to these levels of performance. Limitations are discussed and implications for future research are presented.
Abikoff, H.B., Jensen, P.S., Arnold, L.E., Hoza, B., Hechtman, L., Pollack, S., . . . Wigal, T. ( 2002). Observed classroom behavior of children with ADHD: Relationship to gender and comorbidity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology , 30, 349-360.
2.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author .
3.
Bagwell, C.L., Molina, B., Pelham, W.E., & Hoza, B. ( 2001). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and problems in peer relations: Predictions from childhood to adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1285-1292.
4.
Barkley, R.A. ( 2006). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford.
5.
Beard, K.Y. ( 1998). The effects of a teacher and parent directed proactive early intervention on the behaviors of elementary school children at risk for antisocial behavior (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Oregon, Eugene.
6.
Blachman, D.R., & Hinshaw, S. ( 2002). Patterns of friendship among girls with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 625-640.
7.
Diken, I.H., & Rutherford, R.B. (2005). First step to success early intervention program: a study of effectiveness with Native-American children . Education and Treatment of Children, 28, 445-465.
8.
Drummond, T. ( 1993). The Student Risk Screening Scale (SRSS). Grants Pass, OR: Josephine County Mental Health Program .
9.
DuPaul, G.J., Power, T.J., Anastopoulos, A.D., & Reid, R. ( 1998). ADHD Rating Scale IV Manual. New York, NY: Guilford.
10.
DuPaul, G.J., & Stoner, G. ( 2003). ADHD in the schools: Assessment and intervention strategies (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford.
11.
Ercan, E.S., & Turgay, A. ( 1999). Dikkat eksikligi ve hiperaktivite bozuklugunda beyin goruntuleme calismalari [Brain imagining studies of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]. Turk Psikiyatri Dergisi, 10, 134-142.
12.
Ersan, E.E., Dogan, O., Dogan, S., & Sumer, H. ( 2004). The distribution of symptoms of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and oppositional defiant disorder in school age children in Turkey . European and Child Adolescent Psychiatry, 13, 354-361.
13.
Gadow, K.D., Nolan, E.E., Litcher, L., Carlson, G.A., Panina, N., Golovakha, E., . . . Bromet, E.J. ( 2000). Comparison of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptom subtypes in Ukrainian school children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 1520-1527.
14.
Golly, A., Sprague, J., Walker, H.M., Beard, K., & Gorham, G. ( 2000). The First Step to Success program: An analysis of outcomes with identical twins across multiple baselines. Behavioral Disorders, 25, 170-182.
15.
Golly, A.M., Stiller, B., & Walker, H.M. ( 1998). First Step to Success: Replication and social validation of an early intervention program. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 6, 243-250.
16.
Guclu, O., & Erkiran, M. ( 2004). Dikkat eksikligi ve hiperaktivite bozuklugu tanisi konmus cocuklarin eveynlerinde psikiyatrik yukluluk [Personality disorders in parents of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]. Klinik Psikiyatri, 7, 32-41.
17.
Gunay-Kilic, B., & Sener, S. ( 2005). Family functioning and psychosocial characteristics in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with comorbid oppositional defiant disorder or conduct disorder. Turkish Journal of Psychiatry , 16, 21-28.
18.
Greenwood, P.W. ( 1995, September). The cost effectiveness of early intervention as a strategy for reducing violent crime. Paper prepared for the University of California Policy Seminar Crime Project, RAND, Santa Monica, CA.
19.
Hinshaw, S.P. ( 1994). Attention deficits and hyperactivity in children. California, CA: Sage.
20.
Hinshaw, S.P., & Melnick, S.M. ( 1995). Peer relationship in boys with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder with and without comorbid aggression. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 627-647.
21.
Hoza, B., Mrug, S., Gerdes, A.C., Hinshaw, S., Bukowski, W.M., Gold, J.A., . . . Arnold, L.E. ( 2005). What aspects of peer relationships are impaired in children with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder?Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 411-423.
22.
Hoza, B., Pelham, W.E., Dobbs, J., Owens, J., & Pillow, D.R. ( 2002). Do boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder have positive illusory self-concepts? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 268-278.
23.
Kashani, J.H., Jones, M.R., Bumby, K.M., & Thomas, L.A. ( 1999). Youth violence: Psychosocial risk factors, treatment, prevention, and recommendations. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 7, 200-210.
24.
Kazdin, A.E. ( 1987). Treatment of antisocial behavior in children: Current status and future directions. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 187-203.
25.
Kern, L., Dupaul, G.J., Volpe, R.J., Sokol, N.G., Lutz, J.G., Arbolino, L.A., . . . VanBrakle, J.D. (2007). Multisetting assessment-based intervention for young children at risk for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Initial effects on academic and behavioral functioning. School Psychology Review, 36, 237-255.
26.
Kores, M., Kalff, A.C., Kessels, A.G.H., Steyaert, J., Feron, F., Van Someren, A., . . ., Vles, J.S. ( 2001). Child psychiatric diagnoses in a population of Dutch school children aged 6 to 8 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1401-1409.
27.
Lahey, B.B., Pelham, W.E., Stein, M.A., Loney, J., Trapani, C., Nugent, K., . . . Baumann, B. ( 1998). Validity of DSM-IV attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder for younger children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 695-702.
28.
Landau, S., Milich, R., & Diener, M.B. ( 1998). Peer relations of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Reading & Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 14, 83-105.
29.
Liu, X., Kurita, H., Tachimori, H., Ze, J., & Okawa, M. ( 2000). Behavioral and emotional problems in Chinese children: Teachers reports for ages 6 to 11. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 253-260.
30.
MacDougall, P., Hymel, S., Vaillancourt, T., & Mercer, L. ( 2001). The consequences of childhood peer rejection. In M. R. Leary (Ed.), Interpersonal rejection (pp. 213-247). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
31.
Mannuzza, S., Klein, R.G., Bessler, A.Malloy, P., & LaPadula, M. ( 1998). Adult psychiatric status of hyperactive boys grown up . American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 493-498.
32.
Meyer, A. ( 1998). Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder among North Sotho speaking primary school children in South Africa: Prevalence and sex ratios. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 8, 186-195.
33.
Meyer, A., Eilertsen, D.E., Sundet, J.M., Tshifularo, J.G., & Sagvolden, T. ( 2004). Crosscultural similarities in ADHD-like behavior amongst South African primary school children. South African Journal of Psychology, 34, 123-139.
34.
Mikami, A.Y., & Hinshaw, S.P. ( 2003). Buffers of peer rejection among girls with and without ADHD: The role of popularity with adults and goal-directed solitary play. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 381-397.
35.
Oncu, B., & Olmez, S. ( 2004). Dikkat eksikligi ve hiperaktivite bozuklugu olan eriskinlerde noropsikolojik bulgular [Neuro-psychological findings in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]. Turkish Journal of Psychiatry , 15, 41-46.
36.
Overton, S., McKenzie, L., King, K., & Osborne, J. ( 2002). Replication of the First Step to Success Model: A multiple-case study of implementation effectiveness. Behavioral Disorders , 28, 40-56.
37.
Ozdemir, S. ( 2006a). First Step to Success program: Implementation effectiveness with Turkish children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Arizona State University, Phoenix.
38.
Ozdemir, S. ( 2006b). Burnout levels of teachers of students with AD/HD in Turkey: Comparison with teachers of non-AD/ HD students. Education and Treatment of Children, 29, 693-709.
39.
Pekcanlar, A., Turgay, A., Miral, S., & Baykara, A. ( 1999). Dikkat eksikligi hiperaktivite bozuklugunda aile islevleri [Family functioning in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]. Cocuk ve Ruh Sagligi Dergisi, 6, 99-107.
40.
Perkins-Rowe, K.A. ( 2001). Direct and collateral effects of the First Step to Success program: Replication and extension of findings (Unpublished doctoral dissertation) . University of Oregon, Eugene.
41.
Reid, J. ( 1993). Prevention of conduct disorder before and after school entry: Relating interventions to developmental findings. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 243-262.
42.
Stormont, M. ( 2001). Social outcomes of children with AD/HD: Contributing factors and implications for practice. Psychology in the Schools , 38, 521-531.
43.
Stroes, A., Alberts, E., & van der Meere, J.J. (2003). Boys with ADHD in social interaction with a nonfamiliar adult: An observational study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 295-302.
44.
Tawney, J.W., & Gast, D.L. ( 1984). Single subject research in special education. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
45.
Treuting, J.J., & Hinshaw, S.P. ( 2001). Depression and self-esteem in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Associations with comorbid aggression and explanatory attributional mechanisms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 23-39.
46.
Vile Junod, R.E., DuPaul, G.J., Jitendra, A.K., Volpe, R.J., & Cleary, K.S. ( 2006). Classroom observations of students with and without ADHD: Differences across types of engagement. Journal of School Psychology, 44, 87-104.
47.
Walker, H.M., Kavanagh, K., Stiller, B., Golly, A., Severson, H.H., & Feil, E.G. ( 1998). First Step to Success: An early intervention approach for preventing school antisocial behavior. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 6, 66-80.
48.
Walker, H.M., Seeley, J.R., Small, J., Severson, H.H., Graham, B., Feil, E.G., . . . Forness, S.R. (in press). A randomized controlled trial of the First Step to Success early intervention: Demonstration of program efficacy outcomes within a diverse, urban school district. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions .
49.
Walker, H.M., Stiller, B., Golly, A., Kavanagh, K., Severson, H.H., & Feil, E.G. ( 1997). First Step to Success implementation guide. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.
50.
Young, S. ( 2000). ADHD children grown: An empirical review. Counseling Psychology Quarterly, 13, 191-200.
