Although there is a substantial empirical foundation for the basic intervention components of behavior analysis and positive behavior support (PBS), the field still lacks a standardized program model of individualized PBS suitable for widespread application by school personnel. This article provides a description of a standardized PBS model that is in the process of development and large-scale evaluation. The “Prevent-Teach-Reinforce” (PTR) model is designed to meet the behavior support needs of students with serious behavior challenges in a broad range of school settings. Included in this article are an overview of the model’s components and implementation process, two case examples, and a discussion of the model’s status and future directions.
Algozzine, K., & Algozzine, B. ( 2007). Classroom instructional ecology and school-wide positive behavior support. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 24, 29-47.
2.
Bambara, L., & Kern, L. (Eds.). (2005). Individualized supports for students with problem behaviors: Designing positive behavior plans. New York: Guilford.
3.
Blair, K.C., Umbreit, J., & Bos, C.S. ( 1999). Using functional assessment and children’s preferences to improve the behavior of young children with behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 24, 151-166.
4.
Carr, E.G. ( 1988). Functional equivalence as a mechanism of response generalization . In R. H. Horner & G. Dunlap (Eds.) Generalization and maintenance: Lifestyle changes in applied settings (pp. 221- 241). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
5.
Carr, E.G., Dunlap, G., Horner, R.H., Koegel, R.L., Turnbull, A.P., Sailor, W., et al. (2002). Positive behavior support: Evolution of an applied science. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions , 4, 4-16.
6.
Carr, E.G., & Durand, V.M. ( 1985). Reducing behavior problems through functional communication training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 111-126.
7.
Carr, E.G., Horner, R.H., Turnbull, A.P., Marquis, J., Magito-Mclaughlin, D., McAtee, M.L., et al. (1999). Positive behavior support for people with developmental disabilities: A research synthesis. Washington, DC: American Association on Mental Retardation.
8.
Carr, E.G., Levin, L., McConnachie, G., Carlson, J.I., Kemp, D.C., & Smith, C.E. ( 1994). Communication-based interventions for problem behavior: A user's guide for producing behavior change. Baltimore , MD: Paul H. Brookes.
9.
Clarke, S., Dunlap, G., Foster-Johnson, L., Childs, K.E., Wilson, D., White, R., et al. (1995). Improving the conduct of students with behavioral disorders by incorporating student interests into curricular activities . Behavioral Disorders, 20, 221-237.
10.
Clarke, S., Worcester, J., Dunlap, G., Murray, M., & Bradley-Klug, K. (2002). Using multiple measures to evaluate positive behavior support: A case example. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 4, 131-145.
Crone, D.A., & Horner, R.H. ( 2003). Building positive behavior support systems in schools: Functional behavioral assessment. New York: Guilford.
13.
Derby, K.M., Wacker, D.P., Berg, W., DeRaad, A., Ulrich, S., Asmus, J., Harding, J., Prouty, A., et al. (1997). The long-term effects of functional communication training in home settings. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis , 30, 507-531.
14.
Doyle, P.D., Jenson, W.R., Clark, E., & Gates, G. ( 1999). Free time and dots as negative reinforcement to improve academic completion and accuracy for mildly disabled students. Proven Practice, 2, 10-15.
15.
Dunlap, G., & Carr, E.G. ( 2007). Positive behavior support and developmental disabilities: A summary and analysis of research. In S. L. Odom, R. H. Horner, M. Snell, & J. Blacher (Eds.), Handbook of developmental disabilities (pp. 469-482). New York: Guilford.
16.
Dunlap, G., dePerczel, M., Clarke, S., Wilson, D., Wright, S., White, R., et al. (1994). Choice making to promote adaptive behavior for students with emotional and behavioral challenges. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 505-518.
17.
Dunlap, G., Ester, T., Langhans, S., & Fox, L. ( 2006). Functional communication training with toddlers in home environments. Journal of Early Intervention, 28, 81-96.
18.
Dunlap, G., Foster-Johnson, L., Clarke, S., Kern, L., & Childs, K.E. ( 1995). Modifying activities to produce functional outcomes: Effects on the disruptive behaviors of students with disabilities. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 20, 248-258.
19.
Dunlap, G., Iovannone, R., English, C., Kincaid, D., Wilson, K., Christiansen, K., et al. (in press). Prevent-Teach-Reinforce: A school-based model of positive behavior support. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
20.
Dunlap, G., & Kern, L. ( 1996). Modifying instructional activities to promote desirable behavior: A conceptual and practical framework. School Psychology Quarterly, 11, 297-312.
21.
Dunlap, G., Kern, L., dePerczel, M., Clarke, S., Wilson, D., Childs, K.E., White, R., et al. (1993). Functional analysis of classroom variables for students with emotional and behavioral challenges. Behavioral Disorders, 18, 275-291.
22.
Dunlap, G., Kern-Dunlap, L., Clarke, S., & Robbins, F.R. ( 1991). Functional assessment, curriculum revision, and severe behavior problems. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 387-397.
23.
Dunlap, G., & Kincaid, D. ( 2001). The widening world of functional assessment: Comments on four manuals and beyond. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis , 34, 365-377.
24.
Durand, V.M. ( 1990). Severe behavior problems: A functional communication training approach. New York: Guilford .
25.
Dyer, K., Dunlap, G., & Winterling, V. (1990). Effects of choice making on the serious problem behaviors of students with sever handicaps. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 23, 515-524.
26.
Emerson, E., Kiernan, C., & Alborz, A. ( 2001). The prevalence of challenging behaviors: A total population study. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 22, 77-93.
27.
Fabiano, G.A., Pelham, W.E., Karmazin, K., Kreher, J., Panahon, C.J., & Carlson, C. ( 2008). A group contingency program to improve the behavior of elementary school students in a cafeteria. Behavior Modification , 32, 121-132.
28.
Frea, W.D., & Hughes, C. ( 1997). Functional analysis and treatment of social-communicative behavior of adolescents with developmental disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 701-704.
29.
Gresham, F.M., & Elliott, S.N. ( 1990). Social Skills Rating System (SSRS). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance.
30.
Gureasko-Moore, S., DuPaul, G.J., & White, G.P. ( 2006). The effects of self-management in general education classrooms on the organizational skills of adolescents with ADHD. Behavior Modification, 30, 159-183.
31.
Halle, J., Bambara, L.M., & Reichle, J. ( 2005). Teaching alternative skills. In L. Bambara & L. Kern, (Eds.) Individualized supports for students with problem behaviors: Designing positive behavior plans (pp. 237-274). New York: Guilford.
32.
Horner, R.H., Carr, E.G., Strain, P.S., Todd, A.W., & Reed, H.K. ( 2002). Problem behavior interventions for young children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32, 423-446.
33.
Iovannone, R. ( 2008, March). Prevent-Teach-Reinforce (PTR): Teacher-driven functional assessment and intervention. Paper presented at the 5th international conference of the Association for Positive Behavior Support, Chicago.
34.
Kerr, M.M., & Nelson, C.M. ( 2006). Strategies for addressing behavior problems (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
35.
Kern, L., Childs, K.E., Dunlap, G., Clarke, S., & Falk, G.D. ( 1994). Using assessment-based curricular intervention to improve the classroom behavior of a student with emotional and behavioral challenges . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 7-19.
36.
Kiernan, C., Reeves, D., & Alborz, A. ( 1995). The use of anti-psychotic drugs with adults with learning disabilities and challenging behavior. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 39(4), 263-274.
37.
Koegel, L.K., Harrower, J.K., & Koegel, R.L. ( 1999). Support for children with developmental disabilities in full inclusion classrooms through self-management. Journal of Positive Behavioral Interventions, 1, 26-34.
38.
Kohler, F.W., & Strain, P.S. ( 1992). Applied behavior analysis and the movement to restructure schools: Compatibilities and opportunities for collaboration. Journal of Behavioral Education, 2, 367-390.
39.
Lane, K.L., Weisenbach, J.L., Phillips, A., & Wehby, J.H. ( 2007). Designing, implementing, and evaluating function-based interventions using a systematic, feasible approach. Behavioral Disorders, 32, 122-139.
40.
Luiselli, J. K. (Ed.) (2006). Antecedent assessment & intervention: Supporting children & adults with developmental disabilities in community settings. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
41.
Maag, J.W. ( 2001). Rewarded by punishment: Reflections on the disuse of positive reinforcement in the schools. Exceptional Children , 67, 173-186.
42.
McAtee, M., Carr, E.G., & Schulte, C. ( 2004). A contextual assessment inventory for problem behavior: Initial development. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions , 6, 148-165.
43.
Moore, D.J., Anderson, A., & Kumar, K. ( 2005). Instructional adaptation in the management of escape-maintained behavior in a classroom. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions , 7, 216-223.
44.
Murphy, K.A., Theodore, L.A., Aloiso, D., Edwards, J.M.A., & Hughes, T.L. ( 2007). Interdependent group contingency and mystery motivators to reduce preschool disruptive behavior. Psychology in the Schools, 44(1), 53-63.
45.
National Behavior Research Coordination Center. ( 2007). Annual interim report 2007. Palo Alto, CA: Author.
46.
Newcomer, L.L., & Lewis, T.J. ( 2004). Functional behavioral assessment: An investigation of assessment reliability and effectiveness of function-based interventions. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 12(1), 168-181.
47.
O’Neill, R.E., Horner, R.H., Albin, R.W., Storey, K., Sprague, J.R., & Newton, J.S. ( 1997). Functional assessment of problem behavior: A practical assessment guide. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
48.
Peterson, S.M.P., Caniglia, C., & Royster, A.J. ( 2001). Application of choice-making intervention for a student with multiply maintained problem behavior. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 16(1), 240-246.
49.
Reed, G.K., Ringdahl, J.E., Wacker, D.P., Barretto, A., & Andelman, M.S. (2005). The effects of fixed-time and contingent schedules of negative reinforcement on compliance and aberrant behavior. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 26, 281-295.
50.
Reeve, C.E., & Carr, E.G. ( 2000). Prevention of severe behavior problems in children with developmental disorders. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions , 2, 144-160.
51.
Reichle, J., & Wacker, D.P. ( 1993). Communicative alternatives to challenging behavior: Integrating functional assessment and intervention strategies. Baltimore , MD: Paul H. Brookes.
52.
Reimers, T., & Wacker, D. ( 1988). Parents’ ratings of the acceptability of behavioral treatment recommendations made in an outpatient clinic: A preliminary analysis of the influence of treatment effectiveness. Behavioral Disorders , 14, 7-15.
53.
Riley-Tillman, T.C., Chafouleas, S.M., Sassu, K.A., Chanese, J.A.M., & Glazer, A.D. ( 2008). Examining the agreement of direct behavior ratings and systematic direct observation data for on-task and disruptive behavior. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 10, 136-143.
54.
Romaniuk, C., & Miltenberger, E.G. (2001). The influence of preference and choice of activity on problem behavior. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 3, 152-159.
55.
Sulzer, B., & Mayer, G.R. ( 1972). Behavior modification procedures for school personnel . Hinsdale, IL: Dryden.
56.
Touchette, P.E., MacDonald, R.F., & Langer, S.N. ( 1985). A scatter plot for identifying stimulus control of problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 343-351.
57.
Umbreit, J., & Blair, K.C. ( 1997). Using structural analysis to facilitate the treatment of noncompliance and aggression in a young child at-risk for behavioral disorders . Behavioral Disorders, 22, 75-86.
