Although knowledge about the efficacy of treatments such as pivotal response training (PRT) for children with autism is increasing, studies of large-scale effectiveness for and transportability to diverse community populations are needed. The current study provides a large-scale preliminary assessment of (a) the effectiveness of a community-based parent education PRT intervention and (b) whether specific child variables are associated with outcomes. One hundred fifty-eight families with children having an autism spectrum diagnosis participated. Children were heterogeneous with regards to age, gender, and race/ethnicity. Results indicate that all of the children showed significant improvements in adaptive functioning on the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (Sparrow, Balla, & Cicchetti, 1984). However, younger children (3 years old or younger) showed the least impairment at intake and the most improvement postintervention. This is one of the first large-scale community studies of PRT that included a diverse sample.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author .
2.
Arick, J.R., Young, H.E., Falco, R.A., Loos, L.M., Krug, D.A., Gense, M.H., et al. (2003). Designing an outcome study to monitor the progress of students with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 18, 74—86.
3.
California Department of Developmental Services. (2002). Autistic spectrum disorders: Changes in the California caseload: An update, 1999 through 2002. Retrieved February 2, 2005, from www.dds.ca.gov/autism/pdf/AutismReport2003.pdf
4.
Carter, A.S., Volkmar, F.R., Sparrow, S.S., Wang, J.J., Lord, C., Dawson, G., et al. (1998). The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales: Supplementary norms for individuals with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 28, 287—302.
5.
Fenske, E.C., Zalenski, S., Krantz, P.J., & McClannahan, L.E. (1985). Age intervention and treatment outcome for autistic children in a comprehensive intervention program. Analysis and Intervention in Development Disabilities,5, 49—58.
6.
Forehand, R., & Kotchick, B.A. (1996). Cultural diversity: A wake-up call for parent training. Behavior Therapy, 27, 187—206.
7.
Gillham, J.E., Carter, A.S., Volkmar, F.R., & Sparrow, S.S. (2000). Toward a developmental operational definition of autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 269—278.
8.
Hoagwood, K. (2000). Commentary: The dose effect in children's mental health services. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 172—175.
9.
Hoagwood, K., & Olin, S. (2002). The NIMH Blueprint for Change Report: Research priorities in child and adolescent mental health. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 760—767.
10.
Humpries, T.L. (2003). Effectiveness of pivotal response training as a behavioral intervention for young children with autism spectrum disorders . Bridges, 2, 1—10.
11.
Ingersoll, B., Schreibman, L., & Stahmer, A. (2001). Brief report: Differential treatment outcomes for children with autistic spectrum disorder based on level of peer social avoidance. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31, 343—349.
12.
Kazdin, A.E. (2001). Bridging the enormous gaps of theory with therapy research and practice. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology , 30, 59—66.
13.
Koegel, L.K., Koegel, R.L., Harrower, J.K., & Carter, C.M. (1999). Pivotal response intervention I: Overview of approach . The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps , 24, 174—185.
14.
Koegel, L.K., Koegel, R.L., Shoshan, Y., & McNerney, E. (1999). Pivotal response intervention II: Preliminary long-term outcome data. The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24, 186—198.
15.
Koegel, R.L., Camarata, S., Koegel, L.K., Ben-Tall, A., & Smith, A.E. (1998). Increasing speech intelligibility in children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 28, 241—251.
16.
Koegel, R.L., Koegel, L.K. & Brookman, L. (2003). Empirically supported pivotal response interventions for children with autism. In A. E. Kazdin & J. Weisz (Eds.), Evidenced-based psychotherapies for children & adolescents. New York: Guilford Press.
17.
Koegel, R.L., Koegel, L.K., & Carter, C.M. (1999). Pivotal teaching interactions for children with autism. School Psychology Review, 28, 576—594.
18.
Koegel, R.L., O'Dell, M.C., & Koegel, L.K. (1987). A natural language teaching paradigm for nonverbal autistic children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 17, 187—200.
19.
National Advisory Mental Health Council. ( 2001). Blueprint for change: Research on child and adolescent mental health. A report by the National Advisory Mental Health Council's Workgroup on Child and Adolescent Mental Health Intervention Development and Deployment. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health/National Institute of Mental Health.
20.
National Research Council, Committee on Educational Interventions for Children with Autism. (2001). Educating children with autism. In C. L. & J. P. McGee (Eds.), Division of behavioral and social sciences and education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
21.
Phillips, S.D., Hargis, M.B., Kramer, T.L., Lensing, S.Y., Taylor, J.L., Burns, B.J., et al. (2000). Toward a level playing field: Predicting factors for the outcomes of mental health treatment for adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 39, 1485—1495.
22.
Pierce, K., & Schreibman, L. (1997). Using peer trainers to promote social behavior in autism: Are they effective at enhancing multiple social modalities?Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities,12, 207—218.
23.
Prizant, B., & Rubin, E. (1999). Contemporary issues in interventions for autism spectrum disorders: A commentary. The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24, 199—208.
24.
Rogers, S.J. (1998). Empirically supported comprehensive treatments for young children with autism. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 168—179.
25.
Roth, A., Fonagy, P. & Parry, G. (1996). What works for whom? A critical review of psychotherapy research. New York: Guilford Press .
26.
Schreibman, L. (2000). Intensive behavioral/psychoeducational treatments for autism: Research needs and future directions. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 373—378.
27.
Schreibman, L., Kaneko, W.M., & Koegel, R.L. (1991). Positive affect of parents of autistic children: A comparison across two teaching techniques. Behavior Therapy , 22, 479—490.
28.
Sherer, M.R., & Schreibman, L.E. (2005). Individual behavioral profiles and predictors of treatment effectiveness for children with autism. Journal of Clinical and ConsultingPsychology, 73, 525—538.
29.
Shirk, S.R. (2001). The road to effective child psychological services: Treatment processes and outcome research. In J. Hughes, A. M. La Greca, et al. (Eds.), Handbook of psychological services for children and adolescents. (pp. 43—59). London: Oxford University Press.
30.
Smith, T. (1999). Outcome of early intervention for children with autism. Clinical Psychology Science and Practice, 6, 33—49.
31.
Sparrow, S.S., Balla, D.A., & Cicchetti, D.V. (1984). Vineland adaptive behavior scales. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
32.
Stahmer, A.C. (1995). Teaching symbolic play skills to children with autism using pivotal response training. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 25, 123—141.
33.
Stahmer, A.C., & Gist, K. (2001). The effects of an accelerated parent education program on technique mastery and child outcome. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 3, 75—82.
34.
Weisz, J.R., & Jensen, A.L. (2001). Child and adolescent psychotherapy in research and practice contexts: Review of the evidence and suggestions for improving the field. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 10, 112—118.
