Persons with mental illness or mental impairments are represented in U.S. criminal justice institutions at a disproportionately high rate. This fact is of critical importance for persons with autism and those who work with them. This article, after reviewing basic information about autism, discusses four core criminal law concepts illustrated by reported cases involving persons with autism who have become involved with the criminal justice system, either as a target or a perpetrator. Issues regarding competence to stand trial, capacity-related defenses, mitigation in sentencing, and evidentiary issues are discussed. Guidance for practitioners and directions for empirical research is provided.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Acosta v. Turner, 666 F.2d 949 (5th Cir. Unit B 1982).
2.
American Law Institute. (1980— 1985). Model Penal Code and Commentaries.
3.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author .
4.
Atkins v. Virginia, No. 00-8452, 2002 U.S. LEXIS 4648 (U.S. June 20, 2002).
5.
Baird, M.M. (1999). Legal issues in autism. Proceedings of the 20th National Institute on Legal Issues of Educating Individuals with Disabilities. Alexandria, VA: LRP Publications, Conference Division.
6.
Biklen, D. (1990). Communication unbound: Autism and praxis. Harvard Educational Review, 60, 291—314.
7.
Bing, J.L. (1996). Protecting the mentally retarded from capital punishment: State efforts since Penry and recommendations for the future. NYUReview of Law and Social Change, 22, 59—151.
8.
Bligh, S., & Kupperman, P. (1993). Evaluation procedure for determining the source of the communication in facilitated communication accepted in a court case . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 23, 553—557.
9.
Buatte v. United States, 350 F.2d 389 (9th Cir. 1965).
10.
Callahan v. Lancaster-Lebanon Intermediate Unit 13, 880 F. Supp. 319 (E.D. Pa. 1994).
11.
Choutka, C.M. (1999). Experiencing the reality of service delivery: One parent's perspective. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24, 213—217.
12.
Commonwealth v. Bruno, 352 A.2d 40 (Pa. 1976).
13.
Dawson, G. (1996). Brief report: Neuropsychology of autism: A report on the state of the science. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 26, 179—184.
14.
Delmolino, L.M., & Romanczyk, R.G. (1995). Facilitated communication: A critical review. The Behavior Therapist, 18(2), 27—30. Dusky v. United States, 362 U.S. 402 (1960).
15.
Estrich, S. (1998). Getting away with murder: How politics is destroying the criminal justice system. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
16.
Fenske, E.C., Zalenski, S., Krantz, P.J., & McClannahan, L.E. (1985). Age at intervention and treatment outcome for autistic children in a comprehensive intervention program . Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities , 5, 49—58.
17.
Feguer v. United States, 302 F.2d 214 (8th Cir. 1962).
18.
Filipek, P.A., Accardo, P.J., Baranek, G.T., Cook, E.H., Dawson, G., Gordon, B., et al. (1999). The screening and diagnosis of autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 29, 439—484.
19.
Frith, U. (1993). Autism. Scientific American, 268(6), 108—114.
20.
Frye v. Settle, 168 F. Supp. 7 (W.D. Mo. 1958).
21.
Galanter, M. (1983). Reading the landscape of disputes: What we know and don't know (And think we know) about our allegedly contentious and litigious society. UCLA Law Review, 31, 4—71.
22.
In re Grand Jury Investigation, 692 N.E.2d 56 (Mass. 1998). Graves v. Heckler, 607 F.Supp. 1186 (D.D.C. 1985).
23.
Hahn v. Linn County, 130 F. Supp. 2d 1036 (N.D. Iowa 2001).
24.
Hayman, R.L. (1990). Beyond Penry: The remedial use of the mentally retarded label in death penalty sentencing. UMKCLaw Review , 59, 17—53.
25.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C.A. §§ 1400-1487 (West 1999).
26.
Jacobson, J.W., & Mulick, J.A. (2000). System and cost research issues in treatments for people with autistic disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 585—593.
27.
Jacobson, J.W., Mulick, J.A., & Schwartz, A.A. (1995). A history of facilitated communication. American Psychologist, 50, 750—765.
28.
Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbance of affective conduct. Nervous Child, 2, 217—250.
29.
Kuriloff, P.J. (1985). Is justice served by due process?: Affecting the outcomes of special education hearings in Pennsylvania. Law and Contemporary Problems, 48(1), 89—118.
Leone, P.E., Zaremba, B.A., Chapin, M.S., & Iseli, C. (1995). Understanding the overrepresentation of youths with disabilities in juvenile detention. District ofColumbia Law Review, 3, 389—401.
32.
Lovaas, O.I. (1987). Behavioral treatment and normal educational and intellectual functioning in young autistic children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 3—9.
33.
Love v. State, 909 S.W.2d 930 (Tex. Ct. App. 1995).
34.
Ex parte Lucas, 877 S.W.2d 315 (Tex. Crim. App. 1994).
35.
Mackey v. Dutton, 217 F.3d 399 (6th Cir. 2000), cert. denied, 121 S. Ct. 804 (2001).
36.
Mauk, J.E., Reber, M., & Batshaw, M.L. (1997). Autism and other pervasive developmental disorders . In M. L. Batshaw (Ed.), Children with developmental disabilities (4th ed., pp. 415—437). Baltimore: Brookes.
37.
Mayes, T.A., & Zirkel, P.A. (2000). The intersections of juvenile law, criminal law, and special education law. UC Davis Journal of JuvenileLaw and Policy, 4, 125—158.
38.
McCarver v. North Carolina, 532 U.S. 941 (2001), dismissed, 122 S. Ct. 22 (2001).
39.
McEachin, J.J., Smith, T., & Lovaas, O.I. (1993). Long-term outcome for children with autism who received early intensive behavioral treatment. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 97, 359—372.
40.
McGee, G.G., Morrier, M.J., & Daly, T. (1999). An incidental teaching approach to early intervention for toddlers with autism. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24, 133—146.
41.
Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966).
42.
M'Naughten Case, 8 Eng. Rep. 718 (1843).
43.
Morris v. Dearborne, 181 F.3d 657 (5th Cir. 1999).
44.
National Research Council. (2001a). Crime victims with developmental disabilities: Report of a workshop. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
45.
National Research Council. (2001b). Educating children with autism. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
46.
Pate v. Robinson, 383 U.S. 375 (1966).
47.
Penry v. Johnson, 69 U.S.L.W. 4402 (2001).
48.
Penry v. Lynaugh, 492 U.S. 302 (1989).
49.
People v. Armenia, 630 N.Y.S.2d 784 (App. Div. 1995).
50.
People v. Gibson, 101 Cal. Rptr. 620 (Ct. App. 1972).
51.
People v. Lee, 155 Cal. Rptr. 128 (Ct. App. 1979).
52.
People v. Webb, 597 N.Y.S.2d 474 (County Ct. 1993).
53.
People v. Zapotocky, 869 P.2d 1234 (Colo. 1994).
54.
Persson, B. (2000). Brief report: A longitudinal study of quality of life and independence among adult men with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 61—66.
55.
Phipps, C.A., & Ells, M.L. (1995). Facilitated communication: Novel scientific evidence or novel communication?Nebraska Law Review, 74, 601-657.
56.
Pitaski, V.M. (1995). Facilitated communication: Fact or fiction?The Special Educator, 10, 325, 331—33.
57.
Prince v.Commissioner, 70 T.C.M. (CCH) 309 (1995).
58.
Rapin, I. (1997). Autism. New England Journal of Medicine, 337, 97—104.
59.
Robinson, T.R., & Rapport, M.J. (1999). Providing special education in the juvenile justice system. Remedial and Special Education, 20, 19—26, 35.
60.
Rumsey, J.M., Rapoport, J.L., & Sceery, W.R. (1985). Autistic children as adults: Pyschiatric, social, and behavioral outcomes. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24, 465—473.
61.
Schroeder, S.R., LeBlanc, J.M., & Mayo, L. (1996). Brief report: A life-span perspective on the development of individuals with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,26, 251—255.
62.
State v. Anzivino, 716 P.2d 50 (Ariz. Ct. App. 1985).
63.
State v. Jordan, 294 P.2d 677 (Ariz. 1956).
64.
State v. Lynch, 459 S.E.2d 679 (N.C. 1995).
65.
State v. Phelps, 920 P.2d 1098 (Ore. Ct. App. 1996).
Strickland v. United States, 449 F.2d 1131 (D.C. Cir. 1971).
74.
Sundby, S.E. (1997). The jury as critic: An empirical look at how capital juries perceive expert and lay testimony. Virginia Law Review , 83, 1109—1188.
75.
Swisher v. United States, 237 F.Supp. 921 (W.D. Mo. 1965).
76.
Travis, L., Sigman, M., & Ruskin, E. (2001). Links between social understanding and social behavior in verbally able children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31, 119—130.
77.
United States v. Dioguardi, 492 F.2d 70 (2nd Cir. 1974).
78.
United States v. Gigante, 996 F. Supp. 194 (E.D.N.Y. 1998).
79.
United States v. Laro, 41 C.M.R. 995 (1970).
80.
Voss v. United States, 259 F.2d 699 (8th Cir. 1958).
81.
Warboys, L., Burrell, S., Peters, C., & Ramiu, M. (1994). California Juvenile Justice Special Education Manual. San Francisco: Youth Law Center.
82.
Webber, J. (1997). Comprehending youth violence: A practicable perspective . Remedial and Special Education, 18, 94—104.
83.
Wieter v. Settle, 193 F. Supp. 318 (W.D. Mo. 1961).
84.
Yell, M.L., & Drasgow, E. (2000). Litigating a free appropriate public education: The Lovaas hearings and cases. The Journal of Special Education , 33, 205—214.
85.
Zettlemoyer v. Fulcomer, 923 F.2d 284 (3rd Cir. 1991).
86.
Zirkel, P.A. (1995). Facilitated communication of child abuse?Phi Delta Kappan,76, 815—817.
87.
Zirkel, P.A. (2001). Autism and the law: Rulings and expert analysis . Horsham, PA: LRP Publications .
