Tourist Taxonomies of International Tourists Visiting Zimbabwe Using an Extended International Tourist Role Scale

Abstract

Tourist typologies are generally criticized for having spatial biases because most of them were constructed in the context of the Western world. The study used an Extended International Tourist Role (EITR) scale to determine the typologies of international tourists to Zimbabwe. The augmented scale was subjected to reliability and validity tests, which yielded positive results. A factor–cluster analysis of 569 international tourists, yielded three distinct subgroups though with similar traits in certain dimensions. The clusters were named the independent tourist, the indifferent tourist, and the cautious new tourist. In the context of Zimbabwe, the cautious new tourist taxon is the most viable subgroup because of its size and available destination resources. However, for strategic planning, Zimbabwe should begin to embrace the independent tourist. The cautious new tourist is likely to mature into the independent tourist status, if the contemporary trends are anything to go by.

Keywords

taxonomies typologies International Tourist Role (ITR) scale Extended International Tourist Role (EITR) scale Zimbabwe

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Abel

Nyamadzawo

Nyaruwata

Moyo

(2013, April). Positioning the Zimbabwe tourism sector for growth: Issues and challenges. U.S. Agency for International Development. https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00J7ZV.pdf

American Express. (1989). Unique four national travel student reveals travelers types.

Assiouras

Skourtis

Koniordos

Giannopoulos

A. A.

(2015). Segmenting East Asian tourists to Greece by travel motivation. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 20(12), 1389-1410. https://doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2014.982140

Bailey

K. D.

(1994). Typologies and taxonomies: An introduction to classification techniques. Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412986397

Basala

Klenosky

(2001). Travel-style preferences for visiting a novel destination: A conjoint investigation across the novelty-familiarity continuum. Journal of Travel Research, 40(2), 172-182. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916504269644

Becker

L. J.

Seligman

Fazio

R. H.

Darley

J. M.

(1981). Relating attitudes to residential energy use. Environment and Behavior, 13(5), 590-609. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916581135004

Bryman

Bell

(2018). Business research methods (5th ed.). Oxford University Press.

Carrus

Bonaiuto

Bonnes

(2005). Environmental concern, regional identity, and support for protected areas in Italy. Environment & Behavior, 37(2), 237-257. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916504269644

Chang

(2006). Segmenting tourists to aboriginal cultural festivals: An example in the Rukai tribal area. Tourism Management, 27(6), 1224-1234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2005.05.019

10.

Chen

(2016). Typology, tourist. In Jafari

Xiao

(Eds.), Encyclopaedia of tourism (p. 33). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8_394

11.

Chen

S. C.

Raab

Tanford

(2015). Antecedents of mandatory customer participation in service encounters: An empirical study. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 46, 65-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2015.01.012

12.

Cho

Bonn

M. A.

Brymer

R. A.

(2017). A constraint-based approach to wine tourism market segmentation. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 41(4), 415-444. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348014538049

13.

Choibamroong

(2006). Knowledge of tourists’ behavior: A key success factor for managers in tourism business. International Journal of Tourism Research, 1, 1-8. https://www.bu.ac.th/knowledgecenter/epaper/jan_june2006/Teardchai.pdf

14.

Churchill

G. A.

(1979). A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs. Journal of Marketing Research, 16(1), 64-73. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224377901600110

15.

Coccossis

Constantoglu

M. E.

(2006, August 30). The use of typologies in tourism planning: Problems and conflicts [Paper presentation]. 46th Congress of the European Regional Science Association, University of Thessaly, Volos, Greece.

16.

Cohen

(1972). Toward a sociology of tourism of international tourism. Social Research, 39(1), 164-182.

17.

Cohen

(1979). A phenomenology of tourist experiences. Sociology, 13(2), 179-201. https://doi.org/10.1177/003803857901300203

18.

Cohen

West

S. G.

Aiken

L. S.

(2002). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioural sciences (3rd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum.

19.

Cooper

Hall

(2016). Contemporary tourism: An international approach (3rd ed.). Good Fellow.

20.

Cooper

Wanhill

Fletcher

Fyall

(2013). Tourism principles and practice (5th ed.). Pearson Education.

21.

Crompton

J. L.

(1979). Motivations for pleasure vacation. Annals of Tourism Research, 6(4), 408-424. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-7383(79)90004-5

22.

Dalen

(1989). Research into values and consumer trends in Norway. Tourism Management, 10(3), 183-186. https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-5177(89)90067-8

23.

Dann

G. M. S.

(1977). Anomie, ego-enhancement and tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 4(4), 184-194. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-7383(77)90037-8

24.

Dolnicar

(2008). Market segmentation in tourism. In Woodside

A. G.

Martin

(Eds.), Tourism management: Analysis, behaviour and strategy (pp. 129-150). CAB International. https://doi.org/10.1079/9781845933234.0129

25.

Dolnicar

Crouch

G. I.

Long

(2008). Environment-friendly tourists: What do we really know about them? Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 16(2), 197-210. https://doi.org/10.2167/jost738.0

26.

Fan

D. X. F.

Zhang

H. Q.

Jenkins

C. L.

Tavitiyaman

(2017). Tourist typology in social contact: An addition to existing theories. Tourism Management, 60, 357-366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2016.12.021

27.

Finney

S. J.

DiStefano

(2006). Non-normal and categorical data in structural equation modelling. In Hancock

G. R.

Mueller

R. O.

(Eds.), Structural equation modelling: A second course (pp. 269-314). Information Age.

28.

Gamberožić

J. Z.

Tonković

(2016). From mass tourism to sustainable tourism: A comparative case study of the island of Brač. Socijalna Ekologija, 24(3), 85-102. https://doi.org/10.17234/socekol.24.2.1

29.

Gray

H. P.

(1970). International travel–international trade. Lexington.

30.

Hair

Black

W. C.

Babin

B. J.

Anderson

R. E.

(2010). Multivariate data analysis (8th ed.). Prentice Hall.

31.

Hinkin

T. R.

Tracey

J. B.

Enz

C. A.

(1997). Scale construction: Developing reliable and valid measurement instruments. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 21(1), 100-120. https://doi.org/10.1177/109634809702100108

32.

Hooper

Coughlan

Mullen

(2008). Structural equation modelling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 6(1), 53-60.

33.

Jack

Phipps

(2005). Tourism and intercultural exchange: Why tourism matters? Channel View. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781845410193

34.

Jefferson

Lickorish

(1991). Marketing tourism (2nd ed.). Longman.

35.

Jiang

Havitz

M. E.

O’Brien

R. M.

(2000). Validating the international tourist role scale. Annals of Tourism Research, 27(4), 964-981. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-7383(99)00111-5

36.

Keng

K. A. K.

Cheng

J. L.

(1999). Determining tourist role typologies: An exploratory study of Singapore vacationers. Journal of Travel Research, 37(4), 382-390. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728759903700408

37.

Kim

J. H.

Ritchie

B. W.

(2012). Motivation-based typology: An empirical study of golf tourists. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 36(2), 251-280. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348010388661

38.

Kline

R. B.

(2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modelling (3rd ed.). Guilford Press.

39.

Kozak

(2002). Comparative analysis of tourist motivations by nationality and destinations. Tourism Management, 23(3), 221-232. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(01)00090-5

40.

Krippendorf

(1986). Viewpoint the new tourist: A turning point for leisure and travel. Tourism Management, 7(2), 131-135. https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-5177(86)90025-7

41.

E. C. S.

Yang

C. M.

Huang

M. Y.

(2013). Partner choice: Adaptation of strategic collaboration between travel agencies. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 37(4), 516-536. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348012442543

42.

Kumar

Nayak

J. K.

(2018). Destination personality: Scale development and validation. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 42(1), 3-25. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348014561027

43.

Lowyck

Van Langenhove

Bollaert

(1992). Typologies of tourist roles. In Johnson

Thomas

(Eds.), Perspectives on tourism policy (pp. 13-32). Mansell.

44.

Maisam

Mahsa

R. D.

(2016). Positive word-of mouth marketing: Explaining the role of value congruity and brand love. Journal of Competitiveness, 8(1), 19-27. https://doi.org/10.7441/joc.2016.01.02

45.

Mapingure

du Plessis

Saayman

(2018). Travel motivations: A comparative assessment of Zimbabwe’s major international source markets. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism & Leisure, 7(2), 1-21.

46.

Marzo-Navarro

Pedraja-Iglesias

Vinzón

(2016). Development and validation of the measurement instruments of the determinant elements of integrated rural tourism. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 40(4), 476-496. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348013503998

47.

McCabe

(2005). Who is a tourist? A critical review. Tourist Studies, 5(1), 85-106. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468797605062716

48.

C.-M.

Havitz

M. E.

Howard

D. R.

(1994). Segmenting travel markets with the International Tourist Role (ITR) Scale. Journal of Travel Research, 33(1), 24-31. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728759403300103

49.

C.-M.

Howard

D. R.

Havitz

M. E.

(1993). Testing a tourist role typology. Annals of Tourism Research, 20(2), 319-335. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-7383(93)90058-B

50.

Mulaik

S. A.

(2009). Factor scores and factor indeterminacy: Foundations of factor analysis (2nd ed.). Chapman & Hall. https://doi.org/10.1201/b15851

51.

Nimri

Patiar

Kensbock

Jin

(2020). Consumers’ intention to stay in green hotels in Australia: Theorization and implications. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 44(1), 149-168. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348019862602

52.

Noor

N. A. M.

Kumar

(2014). Eco friendly activities vs eco friendly attitude: Travelers intention to choose green hotels in Malaysia. World Applied Science Journal, 30(4), 506-513. https://www.idosi.org/wasj/wasj30(4)14/20.pdf

53.

Nordin

(2005). Tourism of tomorrow: Travel trends and forces of change. European Tourism Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.1422.7849

54.

H. C.

Uysal

Weaver

P. A.

(1995). Product bundles and markets based on travel motivations: A canonical, correlation approach. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 14(2), 123-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/0278-4319(95)00010-A

55.

Pearce

P. L.

Moscardo

Ross

G. F.

(1996). Tourism Community Relationships. Pergamon.

56.

Perreault

W. D.

Dorden

D. K.

Dorden

W. R.

(1977). A psychological classification of vacation lifestyles. Journal of Leisure Research, 9(3), 208-224. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.1977.11970330

57.

Plog

S. C.

(1974). Why destination areas rise and fall in popularity. Cornell Hotel & Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 14(4), 55-58. https://doi.org/10.1177/001088047401400409

58.

Pooley

J. A.

O’Connor

(2000). Environmental educations and attitudes: Emotions and beliefs are what is needed. Environment & Behavior, 32(5), 711-723. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916500325007

59.

Poon

(1992). Tourism, technology and competitive strategies. CAB International.

60.

Ritchie

J. R. B.

Crouch

G. I.

(2010). A model of destination competitiveness and sustainability: Brazilian perspectives. RAP, Rio de Janeiro, 44(5), 1049-1066. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-76122010000500003

61.

Robinson

J. P.

Shaver

P. R.

Wrightsman

L. S.

(1991). (Eds.). Measures of social psychological attitudes. Academic Press.

62.

Ruekert

R. W.

Churchill

G. A.

Jr. (1984). Reliability and validity of alternative measures of channel member satisfaction. Journal of Marketing Research, 21(2), 226-233. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378402100212

63.

Seery

Paris

C. M.

(2014). A three-dimensional tourist typology. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism & Leisure, 4(2), 1-8.

64.

Sharpley

(1994). Tourism, tourists and society. Elm.

65.

Shen

Morrison

A. M.

Park

(2014). Where in the world? A geographic analysis of a decade of research in tourism, hospitality and leisure journals. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 42(2), 171-200. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348014563394

66.

Smith

(Ed). (1989). Hosts and guests: The anthropology of tourism. University of Pennsylvania Press. https://doi.org/10.9783/9780812208016

67.

Snepenger

D. J.

(1987). Segmenting the vacation market by novelty-seeking role. Journal of Travel Research, 26(2), 8-14. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728758702600203

68.

Srihadi

T. F.

Hartoyo

Sukandar

Soehadi

A. W.

(2016). Segmentation of the tourism market for Jakarta: Classification of foreign visitors’ lifestyle typologies. Tourism Management Perspectives, 19(2), 32-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2016.03.005

69.

Stanciulescu

G. C.

Molnar

Bunghez

(2011). Tourism’s changing face: New age tourism versus old tourism. Annals of the University of Oradea: Economic Science Series, 1, 245-249.

70.

Swarbrooke

Horner

(2007). Consumer behaviour in tourism (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780080466958

71.

Swarbrooke

Horner

(2016). Consumer behaviour in tourism (3rd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann.

72.

Tsaur

S. H.

Yen

C. Y.

Chen

C. L.

(2010). Independent tourist knowledge and skills. Annals of Tourism Research, 37(4), 1035-1054. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2010.04.001

73.

Uriely

(2005). The tourist experience: Conceptual developments. Annals of Tourism Research, 32(1), 199-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2004.07.008

74.

Vicol

Zait

(2014). A country’s image as a tourist destination for external intermediaries. Management & Marketing, 9(1), 43-48.

75.

Wearing

Stevenson

Young

(2009). Tourist cultures: Identity, place and the traveler. Sage.

76.

Wickens

(1994). Consumption of the authentic: The hedonistic tourist in Greece. In Seaton

A. V.

Jenkins

C. L.

Wood

R. C.

Dieke

P. U. C.

Bennett

M. M.

MacLellan

L. R.

Smith

(Eds.), Tourism: The state of the art (pp. 818-825). Wiley.

77.

World Tourism Organization. (2019). International tourism highlights (2019 Edition). UNWTO. https://doi.org/10.18111/9789284421152

78.

Yamane

(1967). Statistics: An introductory analysis (2nd ed.). Harper & Row.

79.

Yiannakis

Gibson

(1992). Roles tourists play. Annals of Tourism Research, 19(2), 287-303. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-7383(92)90082-Z

80.

Yuan

McDonald

(1990). Motivational determinants of international pleasure time. Journal of Travel Research, 29(1), 42-44. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728759002900109

81.

Zibanai

(2014). Marketing destination Zimbabwe during and post the 2000-2008 political and economic crises. Journal of Tourism Management Research, 1(1), 14-26. https://doi.org/10.18488/journal.31/2014.1.1/31.1.14.26

82.

Zimbabwe Tourism Authority. (2016). Tourism trends and statistics. https://www.zimbabwetourism.net/tourism-trends-statistics/#

83.

Zimbabwe Tourism Authority. (2018). Tourism trends and statistics. https://www.zimbabwetourism.net/tourism-trends-statistics/#

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.13 MB