Cross-cultural Validation of the Nostalgia Scale for Sport Tourism (NSST): A Multilevel Approach

Abstract

This study evaluated the cross-cultural generalizability of the Nostalgia Scale for Sport Tourism (NSST), which was originally developed and examined in the context of football tourists in the United States. Data were collected from baseball tourists in South Korea, and multilevel confirmatory factor analysis and multilevel structural equation modelling were used for data analysis. Results supported the reliability and the validity of the scale both at individual and group levels, revealing an identical five-factor structure across the 29-item scale. Additionally, this study found a significant effect of sport nostalgia on revisit intention both at individual and group levels. The findings indicate that the NSST is applicable in understanding sport tourists’ nostalgia across different sport and cultural settings. Implications and suggestions for future nostalgia research are also discussed.

Keywords

nostalgia sport tourists classification of nostalgia conceptual model of nostalgia multilevel analysis

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Ali

(2015). Heritage tourist experience, nostalgia, and behavioural intentions. Anatolia, 26, 472-475.

Anderson

J. C.

Gerbing

D. W.

(1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 411-423.

Bentler

P. M.

Dijkstra

(1985). Efficient estimation via linearization in structural models. In Krishnaiah

P. R.

(Ed.), Multivariate analysis VI (pp. 9-42). Amsterdam, Netherlands: North-Holland.

Brown

N. R.

Schopflocher

(1998). Event clusters: An organization of personal events in autobiographical memory. Psychological Science, 9, 470-475.

Brown

(2001). Torment your customers (they’ll love it). Harvard Business Review, 79(9), 82-88.

Browne

M. W.

Cudeck

(1992). Alternatives ways of assessing model fit. Sociological Methods and Research, 21, 230-258.

Carroll

M. S.

(2009). Development of a scale to measure perceived risk in collegiate spectator sport and assess its impact on sport consumption (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.

Castelnuovo-Tedesco

(1980). Reminiscence and nostalgia: The pleasure and pain of remembering. In Greenspan

S. I.

Pollack

G. H.

(Eds.), The course of life: Psychoanalytic contributions toward understanding personality development (Vol. 3, pp. 104-118). Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office.

Cavanaugh

J. C.

(1989). I have this feeling about everyday memory aging. Educational Gerontology: An International Quarterly, 15, 597-605.

10.

Cho

Lee

H. W.

Moore

Norman

W. C.

Ramshaw

(2017). A multilevel approach to scale development in sport tourist nostalgia. Journal of Travel Research, 56, 1094-1106.

11.

Cho

Ramshaw

Norman

W. C.

(2014). A conceptual model for nostalgia in the context of sport tourism: Re-classifying the sporting past. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 19, 145-167.

12.

Christou

Farmaki

Evangelou

(2018). Nurturing nostalgia? A response from rural tourism stakeholders. Tourism Management, 69, 42-51.

13.

Churchill

G. A.

(1979). A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs. Journal of Marketing Research, 16, 64-73.

14.

Davis

(1979). Yearning for yesterday: A sociology of nostalgia. New York, NY: Free Press.

15.

Fairley

(2003). In search of relived social experience: Group-based nostalgia sport tourism. Journal of Sport Management, 17, 284-304.

16.

Fairley

Gammon

(2005). Something lived, something learned: Nostalgia’s expanding role in sport tourism. Sport in Society, 8, 182-197.

17.

Fairley

Gibson

Lamont

(2018). Temporal manifestations of nostalgia: Le Tour de France. Annals of Tourism Research, 70, 120-130.

18.

Fornell

Larcker

D. F.

(1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 39-50.

19.

Gibson

H. J.

(1998). Sport tourism: A critical analysis of research. Sport Management Review, 1, 45-76.

20.

Gibson

H. J.

Willming

Holdnak

(2002). “We’re Gators . . . not just Gator fans”: Serious leisure and University of Florida football. Journal of Leisure Research, 34, 397-425.

21.

Hirsch

A. R.

(1992). Nostalgia: A neuropsychiastric understanding. In Sherry

J. F.

Jr Sternthal

(Eds.), Advances in Consumer Research (Vol. 19, pp. 390-395). Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research.

22.

Hofer

(1934). Medical dissertation on nostalgia ( Anspach

C. K.

, Trans.). Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 2, 376-391.

23.

Holak

S. L.

Havlena

W. J.

(1998). Feelings, fantasies, and memories: An examination of the emotional components of nostalgia. Journal of Business Research, 42, 217-226.

24.

Hox

(2013). Multilevel regression and multilevel structural equation modeling. In Little

T. D.

(Ed.), The Oxford handbook of quantitative methods (Vol. 2, pp. 281-294). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press

25.

Bentler

P. M.

(1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1-55.

26.

Huang

Wyer

R. S.

Jr. (2016). Slowing down in the good old days: The effect of nostalgia on consumer patience. Journal of Consumer Research, 43, 372-387.

27.

Hwang

Hyun

S. S.

(2013). The impact of nostalgia triggers on emotional responses and revisit intentions in luxury restaurants: The moderating role of hiatus. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 33, 250-262.

28.

Jun

J. W.

Dodoo

N. A.

Morris

(2017). The influence of life satisfaction on nostalgic advertising and attitude toward a brand. Journal of Marketing Communications, 23, 413-427.

29.

Kessous

Roux

Chandon

J. L.

(2015). Consumer–brand relationships: A contrast of nostalgic and non-nostalgic brands. Psychology & Marketing, 32, 187-202.

30.

Kim

J. H.

Ritchie

J. B.

(2014). Cross-cultural validation of a memorable tourism experience scale (MTES). Journal of Travel Research, 53, 323-335.

31.

Kim

Iwashita

(2016). Cooking identity and food tourism: The case of Japanese udon noodles. Tourism Recreation Research, 41, 89-100.

32.

Kim

(2018). Segmentation of potential film tourists by film nostalgia and preferred film tourism program. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 35, 285-305.

33.

Lee

Y. J.

(2015). Creating memorable experiences in a reuse heritage site. Annals of Tourism Research, 55, 155-170.

34.

Leong

A. M. W.

Yeh

S. S.

Hsiao

Y. C.

Huan

T. C. T.

(2015). Nostalgia as travel motivation and its impact on tourists’ loyalty. Journal of Business Research, 68, 81-86.

35.

Mason

D. S.

Duquette

Scherer

(2005). Heritage, sport tourism and Canadian junior hockey: Nostalgia for social experience or sport place? Journal of Sport Tourism, 10, 253-272.

36.

Merchant

Ford

(2008). Nostalgia and giving to charity: A conceptual framework for discussion and research. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 13, 13-30.

37.

Monteiro

(2017). Nostalgia and the social perception of the past: The ethnographic revisit of an industrial community (1980 and 2010). Time & Society, 26, 165-181.

38.

Muthén

B. O.

(1997). Latent variable modeling of longitudinal and multilevel data. In Raftery

A. E.

(Ed.), Sociological methodology 1997 (pp. 453-480). Washington, DC: American Sociological Association.

39.

Nunkoo

Gursoy

(2012). Residents’ support for tourism: An identity perspective. Annals of Tourism Research, 39, 243-268.

40.

Oppenheim

A. N.

(2000). Questionnaire design, interviewing and attitude measurement. New York, NY: Bloomsbury.

41.

Rahman

M. S.

Osmangani

A. M.

Hassan

Anwar

M. A.

Fattah

F. A. M. A

. (2016). Consumption values, destination cues and nostalgia on the attitude in the selection of destination for educational tourism: The mediating role of destination image. International Journal of Tourism Cities, 2, 257-272.

42.

Raudenbush

S. W.

Bryk

A. S.

(2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

43.

Satorra

Bentler

P. M.

(1994). Correction to test statistics and standard errors in covariance structure analysis. In von Eye

Clogg

C. C.

(Eds.), Latent variables analysis: Applications for developmental research (pp. 399-419). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

44.

Sedikides

Cheung

W. Y.

Wildschut

Hepper

E. G.

Baldursson

Pedersen

(2018). Nostalgia motivates pursuit of important goals by increasing meaning in life. European Journal of Social Psychology, 48, 209-216.

45.

Sedikides

Wildschut

Baden

(2004). Nostalgia: Conceptual issues and existential functions. In Greenberg

Koole

S. L.

Pyszczynski

T. A.

(Eds.), Handbook of experimental existential psychology (pp. 200-214). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

46.

Shields

A. B.

Johnson

J. W.

(2016). Childhood brand nostalgia: A new conceptualization and scale development. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 15, 359-369.

47.

Sin

L. Y.

Cheung

G. W.

Lee

(1999). Methodology in cross-cultural consumer research: A review and critical assessment. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 11, 75-96.

48.

Stern

B. B.

(1992). Historical and personal nostalgia in advertising text: The fin de siècle effect. Journal of Advertising, 21(4), 11-22.

49.

Stryker

(1987). Identity theory: Developments and extensions. In Yardley

Honess

(Eds.), Self and identity: Psychological perspectives (pp. 89-103). New York, NY: Wiley.

50.

Suntikul

(2017). Nostalgia-motivated Thai domestic tourism at Amphawa, Thailand. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 22, 1038-1048.

51.

Tajfel

(1981). Human groups and social categories: Studies in social psychology. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

52.

Turner

R. N.

Wildschut

Sedikides

(2012). Dropping the weight stigma: Nostalgia improves attitudes toward persons who are overweight. Journal of Experi-mental Social Psychology, 48, 130-137.

53.

Verma

Rajendran

(2017). The effect of historical nostalgia on tourists’ destination loyalty intention: An empirical study of the world cultural heritage site—Mahabalipuram, India. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 22, 977-990.

54.

Vesey

Dimanche

(2003). From Storyville to Bourbon street: Vice, nostalgia and tourism. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 1, 54-70.

55.

Wann

D. L.

Branscombe

N. R.

(1993). Sports fans: Measuring degree of identification with their team. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 24, 1-17.

56.

Wilson

J. L.

(2005). Nostalgia: Sanctuary of meaning. Cranbury, NJ: Bucknell University Press.

57.

Woosnam

K. M.

Norman

W. C.

(2010). Measuring residents’ emotional solidarity with tourists: Scale development of Durkheim’s theoretical constructs. Journal of Travel Research, 49, 365-380.

58.

Woosnam

K. M.

Shafer

C. S.

Scott

Timothy

D. J.

(2015). Tourists’ perceived safety through emotional solidarity with residents in two Mexico–United States border regions. Tourism Management, 46, 263-273.

59.

Yamamura

(2017). Identity, nostalgia and happiness among migrants: The case of the Kōshien high school baseball tournament in Japan. Pacific Economic Review, 22, 792-813.