Abstract
The purpose of this book is to increase awareness of wildlife mortality and toxicity from misuse (baiting and intentional poisoning) as well as legal applications of carbofuran, a pesticide that has been applied to crops for over 4 decades. The book highlights the less-developed parts of the world as they continue to struggle to gather forensic and toxicity data for humans as well as their ecosystems to develop a case against the continued use of carbofuran, an effort which has been undermined in specific areas. The editor stated that the royalties received from this book will go to a research fund established to further develop contaminants monitoring and detection systems in Kenya. Furthermore, the editor dedicated the book to all those who are confronting wildlife poisonings, erosion of biodiversity, and infringement upon the integrity of ecosystems and have put themselves in harm’s way by speaking out.
The editor, Ngaio Richards, is a forensic ecologist and conservationist. She received her PhD in 2010 in forensic science in the United Kingdom and currently is the Canine Field Specialist for Working Dogs for Conservation, a nonprofit organization based in Montana (United States). This book was initiated in 2009 by Dr Richards’s field colleagues in India and Kenya.
The book consists of 9 chapters with contributing authors for each chapter as well as specific subsections in each chapter which in some cases have authors that differ from the chapter editors. Chapter 1 consists of an overview of the chemistry, manufacture, environmental fate, and detection of carbofuran. This initial chapter provides the reader with an understanding of carbofuran as a compound, its current uses along with environmental fate and chemical properties. The chapter also lays the groundwork for all the technical terms used throughout the book in the subsequent chapters. Carbofuran came into use in the late 1960s with the expectation of avoiding the environmental problems associated with organochlorine insecticides. However, due to its rapid breakdown, the persistence in acid soils was not discovered until much later after its use had been approved for a variety of applications. Even though the United States and Canada amassed copious amount of data with respect to its toxicity to birds and wildlife, the extent of its ban from the marketplace was extremely slow. It is the editor’s intent to provide a wake-up call for developing countries that would like to protect their environment and their birdlife in particular.
Chapter 2 follows with a discussion of the toxicity to birds and mammals including the diagnosis of poisoning and the rehabilitation of poisoned wildlife. The 3 contributing authors for this chapter include information on the acute toxicity following different exposure routes depending on the speciation of carbofuran in either a liquid or granular formulation. The chapter has an extensive reference list. The chapter is well written and easy to understand.
Each chapter in the book starting from chapter 3 to chapter 8 pertains to a specific country or geographical area and carbofuran usage. Chapter 3 is edited by 3 contributing authors; one being the editor of this book and describes a chronicling of carbofuran use and its effects on wildlife in Kenya. The subsections in this chapter have contributing authors and describes carbofuran’s entry into Kenya, where and how it is used, its presence and persistence in soils, and a measurement of the conservation threat from poisoning to birds, to the decline of lions and other carnivores as well as its effects on scavenger populations, namely vultures, in Kenya. The chapter concludes with a forensic analysis of the pesticide in the wildlife and its misuse and monitoring in Kenya. The chapter is extensively referenced and discussed the limitations of the data and the need for more research in this area.
Given that the groundwork for the misuse and toxicity associated with carbofuran usage and distribution has been presented, the next chapter (chapter 4) discusses mitigating the human–wildlife conflicts present in India. The 2 contributing authors presented case studies of carbofuran poisoning in relation to other compounds including accidental exposure, misuse of carbofuran, and deliberate poisoning. At the crux of the conflict, is habitat conservation, using community-based solutions, and compensation for loss of property. Human–wildlife conflict primarily stems from an incompatibility between land management practices and wildlife behaviors, all within a decreasing land and resource base. Both Kenya and India are considered developing countries. The chapter is very informative, well written with a flow provided for the reader and cites extensive references.
Chapters 5 and 6 present evidence of carbofuran use and regulation in the European Union including the rest of Europe (chapter 5), and the United Kingdom including Ireland, Wales, and Scotland (chapter 6). Each country delineated in the subsections has contributing authors native to that country. With respect to chapter 5, because of the inclusion of so many countries in Europe, it is not clear which countries still use carbofuran and in which countries it has been banned. Furthermore, the chapter needs a global conclusion to pull together the data from the various countries. After much debate in the European Union, authorizations for plant protection products containing carbofuran were revoked and products were to be withdrawn from the market by 2007. Notwithstanding this, as of April 2011, carbofuran products are still registered for use in some member countries. Yet, other countries such as Spain are using specialized canine units to detect poisoned baits that intentionally kill fox and mongoose populations. With respect to chapter 6, there are no editors for the chapter only contributing authors for each of the subsections presented. Products containing carbofuran were approved for use in England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland until 2001 when approval expired. Carbofuran products were revoked in the Republic of Ireland in 2007. However, carbofuran is gaining increasing popularity as a means to poison wildlife and other animals throughout this region.
The following chapter, chapter 7, is devoted to the use of carbofuran in Brazil with respect to the farming of wheat and rice. In the chapter, the 2 contributing authors wrote the entire chapter. Although the references are extensive, the chapter lacks a conclusion section which would clarify all the information contained in this chapter. The authors point out that very little scientific research has been done to assess the environmental impact of carbofuran use in Brazil to wild fauna. Given that Brazil is an emerging nation, it should follow the chapters presented for India and Kenya, as opposed to the Chapters following Europe and the United Kingdom; 2 countries that possess much data concerning carbofuran’s toxicity to wildlife.
The last chapter devoted to a country is chapter 8, which focuses the reader’s attention to the United States and Canada. While usage began in the 1970s, it has been banned for all uses as of December 2009. The data presented demonstrate unequivocally the lethality of carbofuran to birds when used under operational conditions; the kills have been documented under every formulation. However, the ban of its use, sale, and distribution moved at a glacial pace with respect to bird protection in North America. The chapter is well written and extensively referenced by the authors of the chapter.
The last chapter in the book, chapter 9, written solely by the editor presents conclusions and a pathway forward. This chapter delineates the weaknesses in data and information in developing countries and offers solutions and methods of improving the gaps. These pathways include the following: (a) address and mitigate the root causes of human–wildlife conflict, (b) increase grassroots educational initiatives, (c) enhance analytical capacity including sampling, testing, and monitoring efforts, (d) conduct field studies where necessary data are lacking, (e) coordinate international conservation and monitoring efforts, and (f) finally to address outstanding policy and accountability issues.
The book accomplished its goal which was 3-fold. First, to provide an up-to-date account of the global impact of carbofuran use on wildlife, second to report on the responses and strategies adopted within the conservation community, and third, to share the relevant analytical and forensic methodologies used to detect carbofuran. These goals presented in the last chapter would be better served to be presented in the introduction under chapter 1. The reader would gain a better understanding of the goals of the book. Furthermore, 2 central themes are presented in the conclusory chapter; namely, first, the key driving force behind intentional poisonings is a human–wildlife conflict and that poisonings will continue unabated until the core factors that result in these conflicts are addressed and, second, the legal and labeled uses of carbofuran do pose a threat to wildlife that cannot be mitigated because the compound is inherently unsafe. These central themes would also be better served in the introductory chapter so the reader can follow with a deeper understanding of the conflict.
The book presents a 2-page Appendix with information on 3 additional countries not covered in the book, namely Israel, Australia, and New Zealand. Carbofuran has never been registered in Israel, continues to be used in Australia, and has been registered in the past in New Zealand.
Overall, the book provides the reader with current state of the scientific information regarding carbofuran’s usage and its inherent toxicity to wildlife. It is an eye-opener to a nonscience person and provides educational insight to global problems within the environment and its interface with man, and our limited resources, both natural and anthropogenic. The book provides a compelling read to nonscientists as well as scientists in the area of ecology and wildlife conservation, and its integration of the toxic effects of carbofuran to a country’s resources and ecological system.
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