Background. Exposure to advertisements for tobacco products and tobacco warning labels evokes emotions. This study evaluated the association of discrete positive and negative emotions with interest in alternative tobacco products. Method. In 2013, 1,226 U.S. adult nonsmokers and current smokers viewed advertisements for moist snuff, snus, and electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) with various warning labels and then indicated their emotional responses in terms of anger, anxiety, sadness, guilt, disgust, discouragement, hope, and contentment. Outcomes were openness to using moist snuff, snus, and e-cigarettes in the future and interest in a free sample of each product. Data were analyzed in 2016. Results. Hope was positively associated with openness and interest across all alternative tobacco products as was contentment for moist snuff and snus. Anger was negatively associated with openness to moist snuff and e-cigarettes, disgust negatively to moist snuff and snus, and anxiety negatively to e-cigarettes. Being a current smoker, ever trying a corresponding product, being male, and younger age were associated with greater openness to and interest in moist snuff and snus. For e-cigarettes, being a current smoker, ever trying e-cigarettes, and being female were associated with greater openness, and being a current smoker was associated with greater odds of selecting a free sample. Conclusions. Positive emotions, particularly hope, were consistently positively associated with interest in alternative tobacco products. Hope is widely used by tobacco and e-cigarette companies to advertise their products. Antitobacco messages should aim to lower hope associated with tobacco products but increase hope for cessation or life without tobacco.
The American Tobacco Company. (1957). Half and half pipe tobacco 20 second radio spot: Father’s day [Radio spot]. Durham, NC: Author.
2.
AndersonS. J.PollayR. W.LingP. M. (2006). Taking ad-Vantage of lax advertising regulation in the USA and Canada: Reassuring and distracting health-concerned smokers. Social Science & Medicine, 63, 1973-1985.
3.
BahreinifarS.SheonN. M.LingP. M. (2013). Is snus the same as dip? Smokers’ perceptions of new smokeless tobacco advertising. Tobacco Control, 22, 84-90. doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2011-050022
4.
BienerL.HargravesJ. L. (2015). A longitudinal study of electronic cigarette use in a population-based sample of adult smokers: Association with smoking cessation and motivation to quit. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 17, 127-133. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntu200
5.
BienerL.JiM.GilpinE. A.AlbersA. B. (2004). The impact of emotional tone, message, and broadcast parameters in youth anti-smoking advertisements. Journal of Health Communication, 9, 259-274. doi:10.1080/10810730490447084
BoffettaP.StraifK. (2009). Use of smokeless tobacco and risk of myocardial infarction and stroke: Systematic review with meta-analysis. British Medical Journal, 339, b3060.
8.
BrehmS. S.BrehmJ. W. (1981). Psychological reactance : A theory of freedom and control. New York, NY: Academic Press.
9.
CameronL. D.PepperJ. K.BrewerN. T. (2015). Responses of young adults to graphic warning labels for cigarette packages. Tobacco Control, 24(e1), e14-e22. doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2012-050645
10.
CarterS. M. (2003). The Australian cigarette brand as product, person, and symbol. Tobacco Control, 12(Suppl. 3), iii79-iii86.
11.
CataldoJ. K.PetersenA. B.HunterM.WangJ.SheonN. (2015). E-cigarette marketing and older smokers: Road to renormalization. American Journal of Health Behavior, 39, 361-371.
12.
CatellierJ. R. A.YangZ. J. (2013). The role of affect in the decision to exercise: Does being happy lead to a more active lifestyle?Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 14, 275-282.
13.
CryderC. E.LernerJ. S.GrossJ. J.DahlR. E. (2008). Misery is not miserly sad and self-focused individuals spend more. Psychological Science, 19, 525-530.
14.
CurryL. E.PedersonL. L.StrykerJ. E. (2011). The changing marketing of smokeless tobacco in magazine advertisements. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 13, 540-547. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntr038
15.
DillardJ. P.ShenL. (2005). On the nature of reactance and its role in persuasive health communication. Communication Monographs, 72, 144-168.
16.
DunlopS.WakefieldM.KashimaY. (2008). Can you feel it? Negative emotion, risk, and narrative in health communication. Media Psychology, 11(1), 52-75.
17.
DutraL. M.GlantzS. A. (2014). Electronic cigarettes and conventional cigarette use among US adolescents: A cross-sectional study. JAMA Pediatrics, 168, 610-617.
18.
EmeryL. F.RomerD.SheerinK. M.JamiesonK. H.PetersE. (2014). Affective and cognitive mediators of the impact of cigarette warning labels. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 16, 263-269.
19.
Erceg-HurnD. M.SteedL. G. (2011). Does exposure to cigarette health warnings elicit psychological reactance in smokers?Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 41, 219-237.
20.
FerrerR.KleinW.LernerJ.ReynaV.KeltnerD. (2014). Emotions and health decision making: Extending the appraisal tendency framework to improve health and health care. In RobertoC.KawachiI. (Eds.), Behavioral economics and public health (pp. 101-132). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
21.
FouldsJ.RamstromL.BurkeM.FagerströmK. (2003). Effect of smokeless tobacco (snus) on smoking and public health in Sweden. Tobacco Control, 12, 349-359.
22.
FredricksonB. L. (1998). What good are positive emotions?Review of General Psychology, 2, 300-319.
23.
FredricksonB. L.TugadeM. M.WaughC. E.LarkinG. R. (2003). What good are positive emotions in crisis? A prospective study of resilience and emotions following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2001. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 365-376.
24.
FrijdaN. H. (1986). The emotions: Studies in emotion and social interaction. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
25.
GoniewiczM. L.KnysakJ.GawronM.KosmiderL.SobczakA.KurekJ.. . . HavelC. (2014). Levels of selected carcinogens and toxicants in vapour from electronic cigarettes. Tobacco Control, 23, 133-139.
26.
GranaR.LingP. M. (2014). “Smoking revolution”: A content analysis of electronic cigarette retail websites. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 46, 395-403.
27.
HairJ. J.AndersonR.TathamR.BlackW. (1995). Multivariate data analysis (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Macmillan.
28.
HammondD. (2011). Health warning messages on tobacco products: A review. Tobacco Control, 20, 327-337.
29.
HammondD.DoxeyJ.DanielS.Bansal-TraversM. (2011). Impact of female-oriented cigarette packaging in the United States. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 13, 579-588. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntr045
30.
HammondD.FongG. T.McDonaldP. W.BrownK. S.CameronR. (2004). Graphic Canadian cigarette warning labels and adverse outcomes: Evidence from Canadian smokers. American Journal of Public Health, 94, 1442-1445.
31.
HammondD.FongG. T.McNeillA.BorlandR.CummingsK. M. (2006). Effectiveness of cigarette warning labels in informing smokers about the risks of smoking: Findings from the International Tobacco Control (ITC) four country survey. Tobacco Control, 15(Suppl. 3), iii19-iii25. doi:10.1136/tc.2005.012294
32.
HammondD.McDonaldP. W.FongG. T.BrownK. S.CameronR. (2004). The impact of cigarette warning labels and smoke-free bylaws on smoking cessation evidence from former smokers. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 95, 201-204.
33.
HanS.LernerJ. S.ZeckhauserR. (2012). The disgust-promotes-disposal effect. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 44, 101-113.
34.
Hartmann-BoyceJ.McRobbieH.BullenC.BeghR.SteadL. F.HajekP. (2016). Electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (9). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010216.pub3
35.
HenleyS. J.ThunM. J.ConnellC.CalleE. E. (2005). Two large prospective studies of mortality among men who use snuff or chewing tobacco (United States). Cancer Causes & Control, 16, 347-358. doi:10.1007/s10552-004-5519-6
36.
IfcherJ.ZarghameeH. (2011). Happiness and time preference: The effect of positive affect in a random-assignment expert. American Economic Review, 101, 3109-3129.
37.
IzardC. E. (1977). Human emotions. Meppel, Netherlands: Boom Koninklijke Uitgevers.
38.
KalkhoranS.GlantzS. A. (2016). E-cigarettes and smoking cessation in real-world and clinical settings: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Respiratory Medicine, 4, 116-128.
39.
KeesJ.BurtonS.AndrewsJ. C.KozupJ. (2010). Understanding how graphic pictorial warnings work on cigarette packaging. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 29, 265-276.
40.
KeltnerD.GrossJ. J. (1999). Functional accounts of emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 13, 467-480.
41.
KingB. A.PatelR.NguyenK. H.DubeS. R. (2015). Trends in awareness and use of electronic cigarettes among US adults, 2010–2013. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 17, 219-227.
42.
KiviniemiM. T.Voss-HumkeA. M.SeifertA. L. (2007). How do I feel about the behavior? The interplay of affective associations with behaviors and cognitive beliefs as influences on physical activity behavior. Health Psychology, 26, 152-158.
43.
KlesgesR. C.Sherrill-MittlemanD.EbbertJ. O.TalcottG. W.DebonM. (2010). Tobacco use harm reduction, elimination, and escalation in a large military cohort. American Journal of Public Health, 100, 2487-2492. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2009.175091
44.
LazarusR. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
45.
LernerJ. S.KeltnerD. (2000). Beyond valence: Toward a model of emotion-specific influences on judgement and choice. Cognition & Emotion, 14, 473-493.
46.
LernerJ. S.KeltnerD. (2001). Fear, anger, and risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(1), 146-159.
47.
LernerJ. S.LiY.ValdesoloP.KassamK. S. (2015). Emotion and decision making. Psychology, 66, 799-823. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115043
48.
LernerJ. S.SmallD. A.LoewensteinG. (2004). Heart strings and purse strings carryover effects of emotions on economic decisions. Psychological Science, 15, 337-341.
49.
LeshnerG.BollsP.ThomasE. (2009). Scare’em or disgust’em: The effects of graphic health promotion messages. Health Communication, 24, 447-458.
50.
LeventhalA. M.StrongD. R.KirkpatrickM. G.UngerJ. B.SussmanS.RiggsN. R.. . . Audrain-McGovernJ. (2015). Association of electronic cigarette use with initiation of combustible tobacco product smoking in early adolescence. Journal of the American Medical Association, 314, 700-707.
51.
MacInnisD. J.De MelloG. E. (2005). The concept of hope and its relevance to product evaluation and choice. Journal of Marketing, 69(1), 1-14.
52.
MajeedB. A.WeaverS. R.GregoryK. R.WhitneyC. F.SlovicP.PechacekT. F.EriksenM. P. (in press). Changing perceptions of harm of E-cigarettes among U.S. adults, 2012-2015. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. Retrieved from http://www.ajpmonline.org/article/S0749-3797(16)30443-3/fulltext?rss=yes
53.
McDonaldE. A.LingP. M. (2015). One of several “toys” for smoking: Young adult experiences with electronic cigarettes in New York City. Tobacco Control, 24, 588-593.
54.
MewbornC. R.RogersR. W. (1979). Effects of threatening and reassuring components of fear appeals on physiological and verbal measures of emotion and attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 242-253.
MuttiS.HammondD.ReidJ. L.ThrasherJ. F. (2013). The efficacy of cigarette warning labels on health beliefs in the United States and Mexico. Journal of Health Communication, 18, 1180-1192.
57.
NabiR. L. (2003). Exploring the framing effects of emotion do discrete emotions differentially influence information accessibility, information seeking, and policy preference?Communication Research, 30, 224-247.
58.
NascimentoB. E.OliveiraL.VieiraA. S.JoffilyM.GleiserS.PereiraM. G.. . . VolchanE. (2008). Avoidance of smoking: The impact of warning labels in Brazil. Tobacco Control, 17, 405-409.
NeterJ.WassermanW.KutnerM. H. (1989). Applied linear regression models (Vol. 1127). Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin.
61.
NiederdeppeJ.AveryR.ByrneS.SiamT. (2014). Variations in state use of antitobacco message themes predict youth smoking prevalence in the USA, 1999–2005. Tobacco Control, 25, 101-107. doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2014-051836
62.
NoarS. M.HallM. G.FrancisD. B.RibislK. M.PepperJ. K.BrewerN. T. (2015). Pictorial cigarette pack warnings: A meta-analysis of experimental studies. Tobacco Control, 25, 101-107. doi:10.1136/ttobaccocontrol-2014-051978
PearsonJ. L.RichardsonA.NiauraR. S.ValloneD. M.AbramsD. B. (2012). e-Cigarette awareness, use, and harm perceptions in US adults. American Journal of Public Health, 102, 1758-1766.
65.
PechmannC.ZhaoG.GoldbergM. E.ReiblingE. T. (2003). What to convey in antismoking advertisements for adolescents: The use of protection motivation theory to identify effective message themes. Journal of Marketing, 67(2), 1-18.
66.
PinkletonB. E.WeintraubAustin, E.CohenM.MillerA.FitzgeraldE. (2007). A statewide evaluation of the effectiveness of media literacy training to prevent tobacco use among adolescents. Health Communication, 21(1), 23-34.
67.
PollayR. W. (2000). Targeting youth and concerned smokers: Evidence from Canadian tobacco industry documents. Tobacco Control, 9, 136-147.
68.
PopovaL.KostyginaG.SheonN. M.LingP. M. (2014). A qualitative study of smokers’ responses to messages discouraging dual tobacco product use. Health Education Research, 29, 206-221.
69.
PopovaL.LindeB. D.BursacZ.TalcottG. W.ModayilM. V.LittleM. A.. . . KlesgesR. C. (2015). Testing antismoking messages for Air Force trainees. Tobacco Control, 25, 656-663. doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2015-052477
70.
PopovaL.LingP. M. (2014). Nonsmokers’ responses to new warning labels on smokeless tobacco and electronic cigarettes: An experimental study. BMC Public Health, 14(1), 997.
71.
PopovaL.NeilandsT. B.LingP. M. (2014). Testing messages to reduce smokers’ openness to using novel smokeless tobacco products. Tobacco Control, 23, 313-321. doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2012-050723
72.
PotterW. J.TomaselloT. K. (2003). Building upon the experimental design in media violence research: The importance of including receiver interpretations. Journal of Communication, 53, 315-329.
R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Co. v. United States Food & Drug Admin., 845 F. Supp. 2d 266 (D.C.C. 2012).
76.
RichardsonA.PearsonJ.XiaoH.StalgaitisC.ValloneD. (2014). Prevalence, harm perceptions, and reasons for using noncombustible tobacco products among current and former smokers. American Journal of Public Health, 104, 1437-1444.
77.
RobinsonM. D.CloreG. L. (2002). Episodic and semantic knowledge in emotional self-report: Evidence for two judgment processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 198-215.
78.
RosemanI. J. (2011). Emotional behaviors, emotivational goals, emotion strategies: Multiple levels of organization integrate variable and consistent responses. Emotion Review, 3, 434-443.
79.
RosemanI. J.WiestC.SwartzT. S. (1994). Phenomenology, behaviors, and goals differentiate discrete emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 206-221.
80.
RossiterJ. R.PercyL. (1991). Emotions and motivations in advertising. Advances in Consumer Research, 18, 100-110.
81.
SamiM.TimberlakeD. S.NelsonR.GoettschB.AtaianN.LibaoP.VassileE. (2012). Smokers’ perceptions of smokeless tobacco and harm reduction. Journal of Public Health Policy, 33, 188-201.
ShenL. (2011). The effectiveness of empathy-versus fear-arousing antismoking PSAs. Health Communication, 26, 404-415.
84.
SoJ.KuangK.ChoH. (2016). Reexamining fear appeal models from cognitive appraisal theory and functional emotion theory perspectives. Communication Monographs, 83(1), 120-144.
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. (2014). The health consequences of smoking: 50 years of progress: A report of the surgeon general. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office of Smoking and Health.
91.
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. (2016). Deeming tobacco products to be subject to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, as Amended by the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act; Restrictions on the sale and distribution of tobacco products and required warning statements for tobacco products; Final Rule (21 CFR Parts 1100, 1140, and 1143). Retrieved from http://federalregister.gov/a/2016-10685
WagonerK. G.CornacchioneJ.WisemanK. D.TealR.MoraccoK. E.SutfinE. (2016). E-cigarettes, hookah pens and vapes: Adolescent and young adult perceptions of electronic nicotine delivery systems. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 18, 2006-2012. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntw095
97.
WarnerK. E. (1985). Tobacco industry response to public health concern: A content analysis of cigarette ads. Health Education & Behavior, 12, 115-127.
98.
WeaverS. R.MajeedB. A.PechacekT. F.NymanA. L.GregoryK. R.EriksenM. P. (2016). Use of electronic nicotine delivery systems and other tobacco products among USA adults, 2014: Results from a national survey. International Journal of Public Health, 61, 177-188.
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
