Reproductive Function and Low Energy Availability in Exercising Females

Smith ML , Mitchell JH : Cardiorespiratory adaptations to exercise training. In: Durstine JL , King AC , Painter PL , Roitman JL , Zwiren LD , Kenney WL (eds): Resource Manual for Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1993, pp. 75–81.

Powell KE , Thompson PD , Casperson CJ , Kendrick JS : Physical activity and the incidence of coronary heart disease. Annu Rev Public Health 8:253–287, 1987.

Blair SN , Goodyear NN , Gibbons LW , Cooper KH : Physical fitness and incidence of hypertension in healthy normotensive men and women. JAMA 252:487–490, 1984.

Harris SS , Caspersen CJ , DeFreise GH , Estes EH Jr : Physical activity counseling for healthy adults as a primary preventive intervention in the clinical setting. JAMA 261:3590–3598, 1989.

Kohl HW , LaPorte RE , Blair SN : Physical activity and cancer: An epidemiological perspective. Sports Med 6:222–237, 1988.

Farmer ME , Locke BZ , Moscicki EM , Dannenberg AL , Larson DB , Radloff LS : Physical activity and depressive symptoms: The NHANES I epidemiologic follow-up study. Am J Epidemiol 128:1340–1351, 1988.

Jaffee L , Lutter JM : A change in attitudes? A report on Melpomene's third membership survey. Melpomene Journal 10:11–16, 1991.

Barnett NP , Wright P : Psychological considerations for women in sports. Clin Sports Med 13(2):297–313, 1994.

Loucks AB , Horvath SM : Athletic amenorrhea: a review. Med Sci Sports Exerc 17(1):56–72, 1985.

Lamon-Fava S , Fisher EC , Nelson ME , Evans WJ , Millar JS , Ordavas JM , Schafer EJ : Effect of exercise and menstrual cycle status on plasma lipids, low density lipoprotein protein particle size and apolipoproteins. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 68:17–21, 1989.

Friday KE , Drinkwater BL , Bruemmer B , Chesnut C , Chait A : Elevated plasma low-density lipoprotein and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in amenorrheic athletes: effects of endogenous hormone status and nutrient intake. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 77:1605–1609, 1993.

Kaiserauer S , Snyder AC , Sleeper M , Zierath J : Nutritional, physiological, and menstrual status of distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 21(2):120–125, 1989.

Cann CE , Mortin MC , Genant HK , Jaffe RB : Decreased spine mineral content in amenorrheic women. JAMA 251:626–629, 1984.

Drinkwater BL , Nilson K , Chesnut CH , Bremner WJ , Shainholtz S , Southworth MB : Bone mineral content of amenorrheic and eumenorrheic athletes. N Engl J Med 311:277–281, 1984.

Drinkwater BL , Bruemner B , Chesnut CH : Menstrual history as a determinant of current bone density in young athletes. JAMA 263:545–548, 1990.

Lloyd T , Myers C , Buchanan JR , Demers LM : Collegiate women athletes with irregular menses during adolescence have decreased bone density. Obstet Gynecol 72:639–642, 1988.

Marcus R , Cann C , Madvig P , Minkoff J , Goddard M , Bayer M , Martin L , Gaudiani L , Haskell W , Genant H : Menstrual function and bone mass in elite women distance runners. Ann Intern Med 102:158–163, 1985.

Micklesfield LK , Lambert EV , Fataar AB , Noakes TD , Myburgh KB : Bone mineral density in mature, premenopausal ultramarathon runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 27:688–696, 1995.

Warren MP , Brooks-Gunn J , Hamilton LH , Warren LF , Hamilton WG : Scoliosis and fractures in young ballet dancers. N Engl J Med 314:1348–1353, 1986.

Johnson MD : Disordered eating in active and athletic women. Clin Sports Med 13(2):355–369, 1994.

Brooks-Gunnn J , Warren MP , Hamilton LH : The relation of eating problems and amenorrhea in ballet dancers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 19(1):41–44, 1987.

Dummer GM , Rosen LW , Heusner WW , : Pathogenic weight-control behaviors of young competitive swimmers. Physician Sportsmed 15:75–86, 1987.

Rosen LW , McKeag DB , Hough DO : Pathogenic weight-control behavior in female athletes. Physician Sportsmed 14:1479–1486, 1986.

Sundot-Borgen J : Prevalence of eating disorders in elite female athletes. Int J Sport Nutr 3:29–40, 1993.

Sherman BM , Korenman SG : Inadequate corpus luteum formation: a pathophysiological interpretation of human breast cancer epidemiology. Cancer 33:1306–132, 1974.

Otis CL , Drinkwater BL , Johnson M , Loucks AB , Wilmore JH : American College of Sports Medicine position stand: the female athlete triad. Med Sci Sports Exerc 29(5): i–ix, 1997.

Yeager KK , Agostini R , Natiiv A , Drinkwater B : The female athlete triad. Med Sci Sports Exerc 25:775–777, 1993.

Calabrese LH , Kirkendall DT : Nutritional and medical considerations in dancers. Clin Sports Med 2(3):539–547, 1983.

Carlberg KA , Buckman MT , Peake GT , Riedesel ML : A survey of menstrual function in athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 51:211–222, 1983.

Dale E , Gerlack DH , Wilhite AL : Menstrual dysfunction in distance runners. Obstet Gynecol 54:47–53, 1979.

Erdelyi GJ : Gynecological survey of female athletes. J Sport Med Phys Fitness 2:174–197, 1962.

Feicht CB , Johnson TS , Martin BJ , Sparkes KE , Wagner WW Jr : Secondary amenorrhea in athletes. Lancet 2:1145–1146, 1978.

Sanborn CF , Martin BJ , Wagner WW Jr : Is athletic amenorrhea specific to runners? Am J Gynecol 143:859–863, 1982.

Drew FL : The epidemiology of secondary amenorrhea. J Chronic Dis 14:396–401, 1961.

Frisch RE , Gotz-Welbergen AV , McArthur JW , McArthur JW , Witschi J , Bullen BA , Birnholz J , Reed RB , Herman H : Delayed menarche and amenorrhea of college athletes in relation to age of onset of training. JAMA 246:1559–1563, 1980.

Frisch RE , Wyshak G , Vincent L : Delayed menarche and amenorrhea in ballet dancers. N Engl J Med 303:17–18, 1980.

Calabrese LH , Kirkendall DT , Floyd M , : Menstrual abnormalities, nutritional patterns, and body composition in female classical ballet dancers. Physician Sports Med 11:86–98, 1983.

Stager JM , Robertshaw D , Miescher E : Delayed menarche in swimmers in relation to age at onset of training and athletic performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 16:550–555, 1984.

Cohen JL , Kim Chung S , May PB , : Exercise, body weight and professional ballet dancers. Phys Sportsmed 10:92, 1982.

Shangold MR , Freeman R , Thysen B , Gatz M : The relationship between long-distance running, plasma progesterone, and luteal phase length. Fertil Steril 31:130–133, 1979.

Beitins IZ , McArthur JW , Turnbull BA , Skrinar GS , Bullen BA : Exercise induces two types of human luteal dysfunction: conformation by urinary free progesterone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 72:1350–1358, 1991.

Prior JC , Cameron K , Ho BY , Thomas J : Menstrual cycle changes with marathon training: anovulation and short luteal phase. Canadian J Applied Sport Sci 7:173–177, 1982.

Loucks AB : Alterations in the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axes in athletic women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 68:402–411, 1989.

Broocks A , Pirke KM , Schweiger U , Tuschl RJ , Laessle RG , Strowitzki T , Horl E , Horl T , Haas W , Jeschke D : Cyclic ovarian function in recreational athletes. J Appl Physiol 68(5):2083–2086, 1990.

Ellison PT , Lager C : Moderate recreational running is associated with lowered salivary progesterone profiles in women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 154:1000–1003, 1986.

Schweiger U , Laessle RG , Tuschl RJ , Broocks A , Krusche T , Pirke K : Decreased follicular phase gonadotropin secretion is associated with impaired estradiol and progesterone secretion during the follicular and luteal phases in normally menstruating women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 68:888–891, 1989.

Bullen BA , Skrinar GS , Beitins IZ , Carr DB , Reppert CM , Dotson CO , Fencl M , Gervino EV , McArthur JW : Endurance training effects on plasma hormonal responsiveness and sex hormone excretion. J Appl Physiol 56(6):1453–1463, 1984.

Keizer HA , Kuipers H , De Haan J , Janssen GME , Becker E : Effect of a three month endurance training program on metabolic and multiple hormonal responses to exercise. Int J Sports Med 8(Suppl 3):139–150, 1987b.

Boyden TW , Pamenter RW , Stanforth RT , Wilmore JH : Sex steroids and endurance running in women. Fertil Steril 39:629–632, 1983.

Rogol AD , Weltman A , Weltman JY , Seip RL , Snead DB , Levine S , Haskvitz EM , Thompson DL , Schurrer R , Dowling E , Walberg-Rankin J , Evans WS , Veldhuis JD : Durability of the reproductive axis in eumenorrheic women during 1 year of endurance training. J Appl Physiol 72(4):1571–1580, 1992.

Bonen A : Recreational exercise does not impair menstrual cycles: a prospective study. Int J Sports Med 13(2):110–112, 1992.

Bullen BA , Skrinar GS , Beitins IZ , Mering G , Turnbull BA , McArthur JW : Induction of menstrual disorders by strenuous exercise in untrained women. N Engl J Med 312:1349–1353, 1985.

Schweiger U , Laessle R , Schweiger M , Herrmann F , Reidel W , Pirke K : Caloric intake, stress, and menstrual function in athletes. Fertil Steril 49:447–450, 1988.

Dale E , Gerlack DH , Wilhite AL : Menstrual dysfunction in distance runners. Obstet Gynecol 54:47–53, 1979.

Schwartz B , Cumming DC , Riordan E , Selye M , Yen SSC , Rebar RW : Exercise-associated amenorrhea: A distinct entity? Am J Obstet Gynecol 141:662–670, 1981.

Loucks AB , Horvath SM : Exercise-induced stress responses of amenorrheic and eumenorrheic runners. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 59:1109–1120, 1984.

Frisch RE , McArthur JW : Menstrual cycles: fatness as a determinant of minimum weight for height necessary for their maintenance or onset. Science 185:949–951, 1974.

Baker ER : Menstrual dysfunction and hormonal status in athletic women: a review. Fertil Steril 36:691–696, 1981.

McArthur JW , Bullen BA , Beitins IZ , Pagano M , Badger TM , Klibanski A : Hypothalamic amenorrhea in runners of normal body composition. Endocrinol Res Commun 7(1):13–25, 1980.

Cameron JL , Weltzin TE , McConaha C , Helmreich DL , Kaye WH : Suppression of reproductive axis activity in men undergoing a 48 hour fast. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 73:35–41, 1991.

Cameron JL , Nosbisch C : Suppression of pulsatile luteinizing hormone and testosterone secretion during short term food restriction in the adult male rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). Endocrinology 128:1532–1540, 1991.

Campbell GA , Kurcz M , Marshall S , Meites J : Effects of starvation in rats on serum levels of follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, thyrotropin, growth hormone, and prolactin; response to LH-releasing hormone and thyrotropin-releasing hormone. Endocrinology 100(2):580–587, 1977.

Bronson FH , Manning JM : The energetic regulation of ovulation: a realistic role for body fat. Biol Reprod 44:945–950, 1991.

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic, and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, (4th ed). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994.

Nelson DP , Chatfield SJ : What do we really know from the literature about the prevalence of anorexia nervosa in female ballet dancers? J Dance Med Sci 2(1):6–13, 1998.

Brownell KD , Rodin J : Prevalence of eating disorders in athletes. In: Brownell KD , Rodin J , Wilmore JH , (eds): Eating, Body Weight and Performance in Athletes: Disorders of Modern Society. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1992, pp. 128–145.

Warren MP : The effects of exercise on pubertal progression and reproductive function in girls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 51:1150–1157, 1980.

Wade GN , Schneider JE , Hui-Yun L : Control of fertility by metabolic cues. Am J Physiol 270(Endocrinol Metab 33):E1–E9, 1996.

Sisk CL , Bronson FH : Effects of food restriction and restoration on gonadotropin and growth hormone secretion in immature male rats. Biol Reprod 35:554–561, 1986.

Rojdmark S : Influence of short-term fasting on the pituitary-testicular axis in normal men. Horm Res 25:140–146, 1987.

Cameron JL , Weltzin TE , McConaha C , Helmreich DL , Kaye WH : Slowing of pulsatile luteinizing hormone secretion in men after forty-eight hours of fasting. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 73:35–41, 1991.

Knuth UA , Hull MG , Jacobs HS : Amenorrhea and loss of weight. Brit J Obstet Gynecol 84(11):801–807, 1977.

Cameron JL , Nosbisch C : Suppression of pulsatile luteinizing hormone and testosterone secretion during short term food restriction in the adult male rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). Endocrinology 128:1532–1540, 1991.

Howland BE : Gonadotropin levels in female rats subjected to restricted food intake. J Reprod Fertil 27:467–471, 1971.

Morin LP : Environment and hamster reproduction: responses to phase specific starvation during estrous cycle. Am J Physiol 251(Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol 20):R663–R669, 1986.

Foxcroft GR : Nurtritional and lactational regulation regulation of fertility in sows. J Reprod Fertil 45(Suppl):113–125, 1992.

Nelson ME , Fisher EC , Catsos PD , Meredith CN , Turksoy RN , Evans WJ : Diet and bone status in amenorrheic runners. Am J Clin Nutr 43:910–916, 1986.

Dahlstrom ME , Jansson E , Nordevang E , Kaijser L : Discrepancy between estimated energy intake and requirement in female dancers. Clin Physiol Oxf 10:11–25, 1990.

Van Erp-Baart AMJ , Saris WHM , Binkhorst RA , Vos JA , Elvers JWH : Nationwide survey on nutritional habits in elite athletes. Part I. Energy, carbohydrate, protein, and fat intake. Int J Sports Med 10:(Suppl 1):S3–S10, 1989.

Deuster PA , Kyle SB , Mosler PB , Vigersky RA , Singh A , Shoomaker EB : Nutritional intakes and status of highly trained amenorrheic and eumenorrheic women runners. Fertil Steril 46:636–643, 1986.

Wilmore JH , Wambsgans KC , Brenner M , Broeder CE , Paijmans I , Volpe JA , Wilmore KM : Is there energy conservation in amenorrheic compared with eumenorrheic distance runners? J Appl Physiol 72(1):15–22, 1992.

Mulligan K , Butterfield GE : Discrepancies between energy intake and expenditure in physically active women. Br J Nutr 64:23–36, 1990.

Vincent LH : Competing with the Sylph: Dancers and the Pursuit of the Ideal Body Form. Kansas City, KS: Andrews and McMeel, 1979.

Benson J , Gillien DM , Bourdet K , Loosli AR : Inadequate nutrition and chronic calorie restriction in adolescent ballerinas. Phys Sports Med 13(10):79–90, 1985.

Maloney MJ : Anorexia nervosa and bulimia in dancers. Clin Sports Med 2:549–555, 1983.

Garner DM , Garfinkel PE : Socio-cultural factors in anorexia nervosa. Lancet 2(8091):674, 1978.

Druss RG , Silverman JA : Body image and perfection of ballerinas: comparison and contrast with anorexia nervosa. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2:115–121, 1979.

Cohen JL , Potosnak L , Frank O , Baker H : A nutritional and hematologic assessment of elite ballet dancers. Phys Sports Med 13(5):43–54, 1985.

Cohen JL , Segal KR , Witriol I , McArdle WD : Cardiorespiratory responses to ballet exercise and the VO_2max of elite ballet dancers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 14(3):212–217, 1982.

Mostardi RA , Porterfield JA , Green-berg B , : Musculoskeletal and cardiopulmonary characteristics of the professional ballet dancer. Phys Sports Med 10:120–133, 1983.

Chmelar RD , Fitt SS : Dancing at Your Peak: Diet, A Complete Guide to Nutrition and Weight Control. Pennington, NJ: Princeton Book Company, 1990.

Brownell KD , Steen SN , Wilmore JH : Weight regulation practices in athletes: analysis of metabolic and health effects. Med Sci Sports Exerc 22:564–569, 1987.

Myerson M , Gutin B , Warren MP , May MT , Contento I , Lee M , Pi-Sunyer FX , Pierson RN , Brooks-Gunn J : Resting metabolic rate and energy balance in amenorrheic and eumenorrheic runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 23:15–22, 1991.

Schulz LO , Alger S , Harper I , Wilmore JH , Ravussin E : Energy expenditure of elite female runners measured by respiratory chamber and doubly labeled water. J Appl Physiol 72(1):23–28, 1992.

Scheoller DA , van Santen E : Measurement of energy expenditure in humans by doubly labeled water method. J Appl Physiol 53:955–959, 1982.

Manning JM , Bronson FH : Effects of prolonged exercise on puberty and luteinizing hormone secretion in female rats. Am J Physiol 257(Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol):R1359–R1364, 1989.

Cameron JL , Nosbisch C , Helmreich DL , Parfitt DB : Reversal of exercise-induced amenorrhea in female cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) by increasing food intake. Endocrine Society Abstract #1042, 1990.

Veldhuis JD , Evans WS , Demers LS , Thorner MO , Wakat D , Rogol AD : Altered neuroendocrine regulation of gonadotropin secretion in women distance runners. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 61:557–563, 1985.

Cumming DC , Vickovic MM , Wall SR , Fluker MR : Defects in pulsatile LH release in normally menstruating runners. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 60(4):810–812, 1985.

Laughlin GA , Yen SSC : Nutritional and endocrine-metabolic aberrations in amenorrheic athletes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:4301–4309, 1996.

Williams NI , Young JC , McArthur JW , Bullen BA , Skrinar GS , Turnbull BA : Strenuous exercise with caloric restriction: effect on luteinizing hormone secretion. Med Sci Sport Exerc 27(10):1390–1398, 1995.

Loucks AB , Brown R , King K , Thuman JR , Verdun M : A combined regimen of moderate dietary resriction and exercise training alters luteinizing hormone pulsatility in regularly menstruating, young women. Endocrine Society Abstract #P3-360, p. 558, 1995.

Danforth E : The impact of nutrition on thyroid hormone physiology and action. Annu Rev Nutr 9:201–207, 1989.

Williams NI , Caston AL , Cameron JL : Induction and reversal of exercise-induced amenorrhea: temporal correlation with plasma T3 levels. Endocrine Society Abstract #1775, p. 644, 1994.

Loucks AB , Laughlin GA , Mortola J F , Girton L , Nelson JC , Yen SSC : Hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroidal function in eumenorrheic and amenorrheic athletes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 75:514–518, 1992.

Jenkins PJ , Ibanez-Santos X , Holly J , Cotterill A , Perry L , Wolman R , Harries M , Grossman A : IGFBP-1: A metabolic signal associated with exercise-induced amenorrhea. Neuroendocrinology 57:600–604, 1993.

Schneider JE , Wade GN : Availability of metabolic fuels controls estrous cyclicity of Syrian hamsters. Science 244:1326–1328, 1989.

Schneider JE , Wade GN : Decreased availability of metabolic fuels induces anestrus in golden hamsters. Am J Physiol 259(Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol 27):R570–R755, 1990.

Schneider JE , Friedenson DG , Hall AJ , Wade GN : Glucoprivation induces anestrus and liprovation may induce hibernation in Syrian hamsters. Am J Physiol 264(Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol 33):R573–R577, 1993.

Schneider JE , Goldman MD , Leo NA , Rosen ME : Central vs. peripheral metabolic control of estrous cycles in Syrian hamsters. II. Glucoprivation. Am J Physiol 272(Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol 41):R406–R412, 1997.

Murashashi K , Bucholtz DC , Nagatani S , Tsukahara S , Tsukamura H , Foster DL , Maeda KI : Suppression of LH pulses by restriction of glucose availability is mediated by sensors in the brain stem. Endocrinology 137:1171–1176, 1996.

Clarke IJ , Horton RJE , Doughton BW : Investigation of the mechanism by which insulin-induced hypoglycemia decreases luteinizing hormone secretion in ovariectomized ewes. Endocrinology 127:1470–1476, 1990.

McClure TJ , Nancarrow CD , Radford HM : The effect of 2-deoxy-D-glucose on ovarian function of cattle. Aust J Biol Sci 31:183–186, 1978.

Chen M , O'Byrne KT , Chiappini SE , Hottchkiss J , Knobil E : Hypoglycemic “stress” and gonadotropin-releasing hormone pulse generator activity in the rhesus monkey: Role of the ovary. Neuroendocrinolgy 56:666–673, 1992.

Schreihofer DA , Renda F , Cameron JL : Feeding-induced stimulation of luteinizing hormone secretion in male rhesus monkeys is not dependent on a rise in blood glucose concentration. Endocrinology 137:3770–3776, 1996.

Williams NI , Lancas MJ , Cameron JL : Stimulation of luteinizing hormone secretion by food intake: evidence a role for insulin. Endocrinology 137:2565–2571, 1996.

Mounzih K , Ronghua L , Chehab FF : Leptin treatment rescues the sterility of genetically obese ob/ob male. Endocrinology 138:1190–1193, 1997.

Cheung CC , Thornton JE , Kuijper JL , Weigle DS , Clifton DK , Steiner RA : Leptin is a metabolic gate for the onset of puberty in the female rat: Endocrinology 138:855–858, 1997.

Ahima RS , Prabakaran D , Mantzoros C , Qu D , Lowell B , Maratos-Flier E , Flier JS : Role of leptin in the neuroendocrine response to fasting. Nature 382:250–252, 1996.

Laughlin GA , Yen SSC : Hypoleptinemia in women athletes: absence of a diurnal rhythm with amenorrhea. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:318–321, 1997.

MacLusky NJ , Naftolin F , Leranth C : Immunocytochemical evidence for direct synaptic connections between corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)-containing neurons in the preoptic area of the rat. Brain Res 439:391–395, 1988.

Farrell PA , Garthwaite TL , Gustafson AB : Plasma adrenocorticotropin and cortisol responses to submaximal and exhaustive exercise. J Appl Physiol Respirat Environ Exercise Physiol 55:1441–1444, 1983.

DeSouza MJ , Metzger DA : Reproductive dysfunction in amenorrheic athletes and anorexic patients: a review. Med Sci Sports Exerc 23(9):995–1007, 1991.

Gold PW , Loriaux L , Roy A , : Responses to corticotropin-releasing hormone in the hypercortisolism of depression and Cushing's disease: pathophysiologic and diagnostic implications. N Engl J Med 314:1329–1335, 1986.

Suh BY , Liu JH , Berga SL , Quigley ME , Laughlin GA , Yen SSC : Hypercortisolism in patients with functional hypothalamic amenorrhea. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 66:733–739, 1988.

Ding J , Sheckter CB , Drinkwater BL , Soules MR , Bremner WJ : High serum cortisol levels in exercise associated amenorrhea. Ann Int Med 108:530–534, 1988.

De Souza MJ , Maguire MS , Maresh CM , Kraemer WJ , Rubin KR , Loucks AB : Adrenal activation mediates the prolactin response to exercise in eumenorrheic and amenorrheic runners. J Appl Physiol 70:2378–2387, 1991.

Vance ML , Thorner MO : Fasting alters pulsatile and rhythmic cortisol release in normal man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 68:1013–1018, 1989.

Fichter MM , Pirke KM : Hypothalamic pituitary function in starving healthy subjects. In: Pirke KM , Ploog D (eds): The Psychobiology of Anorexia Nervosa. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1984, pp. 124–135.

Chatterton RT Jr , Hartman AL , Lynn DE , Hickson RC : Exercise-induced ovarian dysfunction in the rat. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 193:220–224, 1990.

Soules MR : Luteal-phase deficiency: The most common abnormality of the menstrual cycle? In: Pirke KM , Wuttke W , Schweiger U (eds): The Menstrual Cycle and its Disorders. New York: Springer Verlag, 1988, pp. 97–109.

Ginsburg KA : Luteal phase defect. Etiology, diagnosis, and management. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 21(1):85–104, 1992.

Nakajima ST , Gibson M : Pathophysiology of luteal-phase deficiency in human reproduction. Clin Obstet Gynecol 34:167–179, 1991.

Soules MR , Steiner RA , Clifton DK , Bremner WJ : Abnormal patterns of pulsatile luteinizing hormone in women with luteal phase deficiency. Obstet Gynecol 63:626–629, 1984.

Suh BY , Betz G : Altered luteinizing hormone pulse frequency in early follicular phase of the menstrual cycle with luteal phase defect patients in women. Fertil Steril 60:800–805, 1993.

Sherman BM , Korenman SG : Measurement of plasma LH, FSH, estradiol, and progesterone in disorders of the human menstrual cycle: the short luteal phase. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 38:89–93, 1974.

Cook CL , Rao CMV , Yussman MA : Plasma gonadotropin and sex steroid hormone levels during early midfollicular and midluteal phases of women with luteal phase defects. Fertil Steril 40:45–48, 1983.

Rotten D , Vielh JP , Jolivet O , Gautray JP : Predictive value of the FSH:LH ratio on follicular and luteal phase characteristics of the human menstrual cycle. Eur J Obstet Gyn Reprod Biol 28:229–239, 1988.

Hutchison JS , Zeleznik AJ : The rhesus monkey corpus luteum is dependent on pituitary gonadotropin secretion throughout the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Endocrinology 115:1780–1786, 1984.

Strott CA , Cargille CM , Ross GT , Lipsett MB : The short luteal phase. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 30:246–251, 1970.

Jones GS , Madigal-Castro V : Hormonal findings in association with abnormal corpus luteum function in the human: the luteal phase defect. Fertil Steril 21:1–13, 1970.

Blacker CM , Ginsburg KA , Leach RE , Randolph J , Moghissi KS : Unexplained infertility: evaluation of the luteal phase; results of the National Center for Infertility Research at Michigan. Fertil Steril 67(3):437–442, 1997.

Lipson SF , Ellison PT : Comparison of salivary steroid profiles in naturally occurring conception and non-conception cycles. Hum Reprod 11(10):2090–2096, 1996.

Buchanan JR , Lloyd T , Myers C , Leuenberger P , Demers LM : Determinants of peak trabecular bone mass in women: the roles of androgen, estrogen and exercise. J Bone Mineral Res 3:673–680, 1988.

Snow-Harter CM : Bone health and prevention of osteoporosis in active and athletic women. Clin Sports Med 13(2):389–404, 1994.

Lloyd T , Triantfyllou SJ , Baker ER , Houts PS , Whiteside JA , Kalenak A , Stumpf PG : Women athletes with menstrual irregularity have increased musculoskeletal injuries. Med Sci Sports Exerc 18:374–379, 1986.

Young N , Formica C , Szmukler G , Seeman E : Bone density at weight-bearing and non-weight-bearing sites in ballet dancers: the effects of exercise, hypogonadism, and body weight. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 78:449–454, 1994.

Drinkwater BL , Nilson K , Ott S , Chesnut CH III : Bone mineral density after resumption of menses in amenorrheic athletes. JAMA 256:380–382, 1986.

Jonnavithula S , Warren MP , Fox RP , Lazaro MI : Bone density is compromised in amenorrheic women despite returning menses: a 2 year study. Obstet Gynecol 81:669–674, 1993.

Takahashi Y , Minamitani K , Kobayashi Y , Minagawa M , Yasuda T , Niimi H : Spinal and femoral bone mass accumulation during normal adolescence: comparison with female patients with sexual precocity and with hypogonadism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:1248–1253, 1996.

Kroger H , Kotaniemi A , Kroger L , Alhava E : Development of bone mass and bone density of the spine and femoral neck – a prospective study of 65 children and adolescents. Bone and Mineral 23:171–182, 1993.

Theintz G , Buchs B , Rizzoli R , Slosman D , Clavien H , Sizonenko PC , Bonjour J-PH : Longitudinal monitoring of bone mass accumulation in healthy adolescents: evidence for a marked reduction after 16 years of age at the levels of lumbar spine and femoral neck in female subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 75:1060–1065, 1992.

Bonjour J , Theintz G , Buchs B , Slosman D , Rizzoli R : Critical years and stages of puberty for spinal and femoral bone mass accumulation during adolescence. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 73:555–563, 1991.

Ott SM : Attainment of peak bone mass. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 71:1082A-C, 1990.

Dequeker J , Nijs J , Verstraeten A , Guesens P , Gevers G : Genetic determination of bone mineral content at the spine and radius: a twin study. Bone 8:207–209, 1987.

Ito M , Yamada M , Hayadashi K , Ohki M , Uetani M , Nakamura T : Relation of early menarche to high bone mineral density. Calcif Tissue Int 57:11–14, 1995.

Prior JC : Progesterone as a bone-trophic hormone. Endocr Rev 1:386–398, 1990.

Snow GR , Anderson C : The effects of 17 beta estradiol and progestogen on trabecular bone remodeling in oophorectomized dogs. Calcif Tissue Int 39:198–205, 1986.

Prior JC , Vigna YM , Schechter MT , Burgess AE : Spinal bone loss and ovulatory disturbances. N Engl J Med 323:1221–1227, 1990.

Waller K , Reim J , Fenster L , Swan SH , Brumback B , Windham GC , Lasley B , Ettinger B , Marcus R : Bone mass and subtle abnormalities in ovulatory function in healthy women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:663–668, 1996.

Nestle PJ : Cholesterol metabolism in anorexia nervosa and hypercholesterolemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 38:325–328, 1974.

Kim HJ , Kalkhoff RK : Changes in lipoprotein composition during the menstrual cycle. Metabolism 28:663–668, 1979.

Farish E , Fletcher CD , Hart DM , Smith ML : Effects of bilateral oophorectomy on lipoprotein metabolism. Br J Obstet Gynecol 97:78–82, 1990.

Colditz GA , Willet WC , Stampfer MJ , Rosner B , Speizer FE , Hennekens CH : Menopause and the risk of coronary heart disease in women. N Engl Med 316:1105–1110, 1987.