This review focuses on highlighting published literature in 2024 relating to the anesthetic management of children with congenital heart disease (CHD). Four major themes are discussed: (i) enhanced recovery after pediatric cardiac surgery (ERAS); (ii) acute kidney injury following cardiac surgery; (iii) neurodevelopmental outcomes and neuromonitoring; and (iv) cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) and blood conservation strategies.
WadleMLandsemLLathamGRossF. The year in review: anesthesia for congenital heart disease 2023. Semin CardioThorac Vasc Anesth. 2024;28(2):91-99.
2.
GoodmansonMMLathamGJLandsemLMRossFJ. The year in review: anesthesia for congenital heart disease 2022. Semin CardioThorac Vasc Anesth. 2023;27(2):114-122.
3.
GrantMCCrisafiCAlvarezA, et al.Perioperative care in cardiac surgery: a joint consensus statement by the enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) cardiac society, ERAS international society, and the society of thoracic Surgeons (STS). Ann Thorac Surg. 2024;117(4):669-689.
4.
AndugalaSMcIntoshAOrchardJ, et al.Successful implementation of enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) in paediatric cardiac surgery in Australia. Heart Lung Circ. 2024;33(8):1201-1208.
5.
MeierSBorzelJHellnerN, et al.Enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) in pediatric cardiac surgery: status quo of implementation in Europe. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2025;39(1):177-186.
6.
DerazSKambliDPatillS, et al.Evaluation of early extubation in the operating room for paediatric patients after congenital open-heart surgery. Cardiol Young. 2024;34(11):2362-2369.
7.
PotterKLRichmondMEGoldstoneABCheungEW. Association of post-operative ICU requirements with early extubation in the fontan procedure. Cardiol Young. 2024;34(2):356-363.
8.
OzturkEOzyilmazIYucelEDRecepBZTTanidirICHatemiAC. Impact of high-flow nasal oxygen therapy on postoperative atelectasis and reintubation rate after paediatric cardiac surgery. Cardiol Young. 2024;34(10):2178-2181.
9.
ElmitwalliIAbdelhadyEKalsotraSGehredATobiasJDOlbrechtVA. Use of high-flow nasal cannula versus other noninvasive ventilation techniques or conventional oxygen therapy for respiratory support following pediatric cardiac surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Paediatr Anaesth. 2024;34(6):519-531.
10.
KuitunenIUimonenM. Noninvasive respiratory support preventing reintubation after pediatric cardiac surgery—a systematic review. Paediatr Anaesth. 2024;34(3):204-211.
11.
GoelAKumarBNegiSMahajanSPuriGDKhanWA. Comparative effect of high-frequency nasal cannula and noninvasive ventilation on the work of breathing and postoperative pulmonary complication after pediatric congenital cardiac surgery: a prospective randomized controlled trial. Ann Card Anaesth. 2024;27(1):43-50.
12.
Todd TzanetosDBassiHFurlong-DillardJ, et al.Best practice peri-extubation bundle reduces neonatal and infant extubation failure after cardiac surgery. Cardiol Young. 2025;35(2):332-337.
13.
MogahedMMAbd El-GhaffarMSElkahwagyMS. Bilateral ultrasound-guided erector spinae plane block for management of acute postoperative surgical pain after pediatric cardiac surgeries through a midline sternotomy. Ann Card Anaesth. 2024;27(4):316-323.
14.
RoyNParraMFBrownML, et al.Erector spinae plane blocks for opioid-sparing multimodal pain management after pediatric cardiac surgery. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2024;168(6):1742-1750.e1749.
15.
DamiãoVPAndradePPde OliveiraLSGBragaAFACarvalhoVH. Efficacy of Erector Spinae Plane Block (ESPB) in pediatric cardiac surgeries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Braz J Anesthesiol. 2024;75(2):844579.
16.
SomaniSMakhijaNChauhanS, et al.Comparison of multiple injection costotransverse block and erector spinae plane block for post-sternotomy pain relief in pediatric patients undergoing cardiac surgery: a prospective randomized comparative study. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2024;38(4):974-981.
17.
CuiYYXuZQHouHJZhangJXueJJ. Transversus thoracic muscle plane block for postoperative pain in pediatric cardiac surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized and observational studies. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2024;38(5):1228-1238.
18.
SivamuruganASondekoppamRRierA, et al.Impact of high spinal anesthesia in pediatric congenital heart surgery on postoperative recovery: a retrospective propensity score-matched study. J Thorac Dis. 2024;16(11):7417-7426.
19.
TannerBMHerrmannJLutfiRYabrodiMAbbasiRK. Liposomal bupivacaine versus plain bupivacaine for pain control following congenital cardiac surgery. World J Pediatr Congenit Heart Surg. 2024. 21501351241293157. Published online November 10.
20.
O'ByrneMLBaxelbaumKTamV, et al.Association of postnatal opioid exposure and 2-year neurodevelopmental outcomes in infants undergoing cardiac surgery. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2024;84(11):1010-1021.
21.
Zeilmaker-RoestGde Vries-RinkCvan RosmalenJ, et al.Intermittent intravenous paracetamol versus continuous morphine in infants undergoing cardiothoracic surgery: a multi-center randomized controlled trial. Crit Care. 2024;28(1):143.
22.
AbdelfattahMAbdelbaserIAwadKAAtallahAMSanadMSayedalahlM. Effect of low-dose ketamine infusion on opioid consumption in children undergoing open cardiac surgery: a randomized controlled double-blind study. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2024;38(10):2349-2355.
23.
HassanPFEl HaddadAM. Dexmedetomidine and magnesium sulfate in preventing junctional ectopic tachycardia after pediatric cardiac surgery. Paediatr Anaesth. 2024;34(5):459-466.
24.
HollanderSAChungSReddyS, et al.Intraoperative and postoperative hemodynamic predictors of acute kidney injury in pediatric heart transplant recipients. J Pediatr Intensive Care. 2021;13(1):37-45.
25.
LipmanARLytriviIDFernandezHE, et al.Acute kidney injury requiring dialysis after pediatric heart transplant. Pediatr Transplant. 2024;28(5):e14829.
26.
MarosiAConwayJMorganC, et al.Acute kidney injury and renal recovery following Fontan surgery. JTCVS Open. 2023;17:248-256.
27.
AltenJACooperDSBlinderJJ, et al.Epidemiology of acute kidney injury after neonatal cardiac surgery: a report from the multicenter neonatal and pediatric heart and renal outcomes network. Crit Care Med. 2021;49(10):e941-e951.
28.
BertrandtRAGistKHassonD, et al.Cardiac surgery-associated acute kidney injury in neonates undergoing the Norwood operation: retrospective analysis of the multicenter neonatal and pediatric heart and renal outcomes network dataset, 2015–2018. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2024;25(5):e246-e257.
29.
HassonDCAltenJABertrandtRA, et al.Persistent acute kidney injury and fluid accumulation with outcomes after the Norwood procedure: report from NEPHRON. Pediatr Nephrol. 2024;39(5):1627-1637.
30.
ShimozonoTUenoKOkudaE, et al.Perioperative acute kidney injury and prognosis of infants with down syndrome and congenital heart disease. Cureus. 2024;16(11):e74658.
31.
LawYMHsuCHingoraniSR, et al.Randomized controlled trial of remote ischemic preconditioning in children having cardiac surgery. J Cardiothorac Surg. 2024;19(1):5.
32.
BieDLiYWangH, et al.Relationship between intra-operative urine output and postoperative acute kidney injury in paediatric cardiac surgery: a retrospective observational study. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2024;41(12):881-888.
33.
TakaHDouguchiTMiyamotoA, et al.Oxygen delivery during cardiopulmonary bypass in pediatric patients with congenital heart disease: association with postoperative acute kidney injury. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2025;39(3):702-710. Published online November 19.
34.
HaywardARobertsonAThiruchelvamT, et al.Oxygen delivery in pediatric cardiac surgery and its association with acute kidney injury using machine learning. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2023;165(4):1505-1516.
35.
ZhangPTongYLiuJ, et al.The lower threshold of hypothermic oxygen delivery to prevent neonatal acute kidney injury. Pediatr Res. 2022;91(7):1741-1747.
36.
SakuraTKanazawaTShimizuTShimizuKIwasakiTMorimatsuH. Association between plasma-free haemoglobin and postoperative acute kidney injury in paediatric cardiac surgery: a prospective observational study. BJA Open. 2024;12:100348.
37.
ShiSXiongCBieDLiYWangJ. Development and validation of a nomogram for predicting acute kidney injury in pediatric patients undergoing cardiac surgery. Pediatr Cardiol. 2025;46(2):305-311.
38.
El-HalabyHEl-BayoumiMAEl-AssmyM, et al.Plasma neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (2-0) index: a precise and sensitive predictor of acute kidney injury in children undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass. Indian Pediatr. 2024;61(6):521-526.
39.
WilnesBCastello-BrancoBBrancoBCSanglardAVaz de CastroPASSimões-E-SilvaAC. Urinary L-FABP as an early biomarker for pediatric acute kidney injury following cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25(9):4912.
PandeCKNollLAfonsoN, et al.Neurodevelopmental outcomes in infants with cardiac surgery associated acute kidney injury. Ann Thorac Surg. 2022;114(6):2347-2354.
42.
PandeCKAkcan-ArikanAMonteiroS, et al.Recurrent acute kidney injury is associated with delayed language development in infants with Congenital Heart Disease. Cardiol Young. 2024;34(11):2377-2381.
43.
TakedaYHoshinoKYamamotoMMorimotoY. Changes in cerebral hemodynamics during pediatric cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass for congenital heart disease. Pediatr Cardiol. 2024;45(5):1398-1406.
44.
KimuraSShimizuKIzumiK, et al.Regional cerebral oxygen saturation and estimated oxygen extraction ratio as predictive markers of major adverse events in infants with congenital heart disease. Pediatr Cardiol. 2024;45(3):13891406.
45.
FengJLinRZhangY, et al.Postoperative EEG abnormalities in relation to neurodevelopmental outcomes after pediatric cardiac surgery. Pediatr Res. 2024. Published online July 12.
46.
VaughanTHammondMSPandeA, et al.Can perioperative electroencephalogram and adverse hemodynamic events predict neurodevelopmental outcomes in infants with congenital heart disease?J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2024;168:342-352.
47.
SadhwaniASoodEVan BergenAH, et al.Development of the data registry for the cardiac neurodevelopmental outcome collaborative. Cardiol Young. 2024;38:75-86.
48.
ReitzJGZurakowskiDKuhnVK, et al.Brain injury and neurodevelopmental outcomes in children undergoing surgery for congenital heart disease. JTCVS Open. 2024;17:229-247.
49.
RobertsonCMTKhademiourehSDinuISorensonJAJoffeARComplex Pediatric Therapies Follow-up Program. Differences in gross motor and fine motor outcomes for toddlers after early complex cardiac surgery. Cardiol Young. 2024;34:1583-1591.
50.
PikeNARoyBCabrera-MinoC, et al.Compromised cerebral arterial perfusion, altered brain tissue integrity, and cognitive impairment in adolescents with complex congenital heart disease. J Cardiovasc Dev Dis. 2024;11:236.
51.
RemmeleJPringsheimMNagdymanNOberhoffer-FritzREwertP. Neuromental health aspects in adults with CHD after cardiopulmonary bypass intervention during childhood. Cardiol Young. 2024;34:1-9.
52.
PastuszkoPKatzMGRavvinS, et al.Predictors of neurologic complications and neurodevelopmental outcome in pediatric cardiac surgery with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. World J Pediatr Congenit Heart Surg. 2024;15(4):280-289.
53.
VandewouwMMNorris-BrilliantARahmanA, et al.Identifying novel data-driven subgroups in congenital heart disease using multi-modal measures of brain structure. Neuroimage. 2024;297:120721.
54.
PikeNAAvedissianTHalnonNHLewisABKumarR. Low pre-albumin but not thiamine predicts cognitive deficits in adolescents post-Fontan and healthy controls. Cardiol Young. 2024;34:803-808.
55.
GaynorJWMoldenhauerJSZolaE, et al.Progesterone for neurodevelopment in fetuses with congenital heart defects: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(5):e2412291.
56.
BiererJStanzelRHendersonM, et al.Unmasking culprits: novel analysis identifies complement factors as potential therapeutic targets to mitigate inflammation during children’s heart surgery. Eur J Med Res. 2024;29:601.
57.
BiererJStanzelRHendersonM, et al.Sanguineous cardiopulmonary bypass prime accelerates the inflammatory response during pediatric cardiac surgery. Perfusion. 2024. Published online October 9.
58.
MaisatWHouLSandhuS, et al.Neutrophil extracellular traps formation is associated with postoperative complications in congenital cardiac surgery. Pediatr Res. 2024. Published online November 11.
59.
UchidaTOhnoNAsaharaM, et al.Soluble isoform of the receptor for advanced glycation end products as a biomarker for postoperative respiratory failure after cardiac surgery. PLoS One. 2013;8(7):e70200. Published 2013 Jul 23.
60.
BrooksBASinhaPStaffaSJJacobsMBFreishtatRJPatregnaniJT. Children with single ventricle heart disease have a greater increase in sRAGE after cardiopulmonary bypass. Perfusion. 2024;39(7):1314-1322.
61.
StarrJPKaramlouTSteeleA, et al.Temperature and neurologic outcomes in neonates undergoing cardiac surgery: a Society of Thoracic Surgeons study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2024;84:450-463.
62.
TiYMengBWangY, et al.Coagulation after paediatric miniaturised versus conventional cardiopulmonary bypass: retrospective cohort study. Perfusion. 2024;39(6):1167-1173.
63.
MathieuLBrunettiCDetchepareJ, et al.Reducing the prime cardiopulmonary bypass volume during paediatric cardiac surgery. Perfusion. 2024. Published online November 1.
64.
PatelKLinTKClarkJB, et al.Randomized trial of pulsatile and nonpulsatile flow in cyanotic and acyanotic congenital heart surgery. World J Pediatr Congenit Heart Surg. 2024. Published online December 22.
65.
BohutaLChanTCharetteK, et al.Significant reduction in blood product usage, same early outcomes: blood conservation in infants undergoing open heart surgery. JTCVS Open. 2024;22:450-457.
66.
IvkinAGrigorievEMikhailovaA. Impact of intraoperative blood transfusion on cerebral injury in pediatric patients undergoing congenital septal heart defect surgery. J Clin Med. 2024;13:6050.
67.
KayoumAARivera FloresEReyesM, et al.Safety of bloodless open-heart surgery on cardiopulmonary bypass in selected children: a single-center experience with minimal invasive extracorporeal circulation. Perfusion. 2024;39(2):391-398.
