Masculinity Threat in Heterosexual Men: A Comprehensive Meta-Analysis of Experimental Research with Recommendations for Future Theory Building and Research Practice

Abstract

Threatening a man’s masculinity may lead to severe negative consequences at individual (e.g., anxiety) and societal levels (e.g., discrimination). Existing research is extensive and requires synthesis. In a comprehensive, systematic literature search, we identified and categorized peer-reviewed studies experimentally manipulating masculinity threat (MT) according to triggers, internalized responses, compensatory reactions, and moderators. We meta-analyzed studies with obtainable effect sizes (N_k = 442, N_participants = 19,448 predominantly heterosexual, mainly Western men) using three-level random effects models. The mean MT effect was small to medium, d = .45, 95% CI [.38, .51]. Self-induced prototypicality threat triggers (men concluding they do not meet masculine ideals) showed the greatest impact. Negative emotions and reduced self-perceived masculinity emerged as the strongest responses. Effects weakened after initial responding, suggesting successful compensation reduces the need for further efforts. Drawing on available evidence, we separate empirically supported MT components from open questions, offering a foundation for theory and research.

Public Abstract

Men are often expected to demonstrate masculinity. Questioning their masculinity can lead to masculinity threat. These threats can have negative consequences for the men themselves (e.g., emotional pain) and society (e.g., discrimination of gay men, women). To better understand when and how such threats and the following consequences occur, we conducted a meta-analysis on 123 studies involving 19,448 men. On average, studies showed that masculinity threats indeed influenced men’s feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. Men were most threatened when they themselves concluded they did not conform to masculine ideals. Negative emotions (e.g., fear) and reduced feelings of masculinity emerged as the strongest consequences. Interestingly, when men initially showed masculine behaviors to reduce the threat, such as risk-taking, they were less likely to feel the need to prove their masculinity again later. We present a visual summary showing which aspects of masculinity threat are supported by evidence and which questions remain open.