Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

We employ a new approach for classifying methods of personality measurement such as self-judgment, mental ability, and lifespace measures and the data they produce. We divide these measures into two fundamental groups: personal-source data, which arise from the target person’s own reports, and external-source data, which derive from the areas surrounding the person. These two broad classes are then further divided according to what they target and the response processes that produce them. We use the model to organize roughly a dozen kinds of data currently employed in the field. With this classification system in hand, we describe how much we might expect two types of measures of the same attribute to converge—and explain why methods often yield somewhat different results. Given that each measurement method has its own strengths and weaknesses, we examine the pros and cons of selecting a given type of measure to assess a specific area of personality.

Keywords

self-report personality tests response process psychological assessment multitrait-multimethod construct validation

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Aarts

(2007). On the emergence of human goal pursuit: The nonconscious regulation and motivation of goals. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 1(1), 183–201. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00014.x

Allen

V. D.

Weissman

Hellwig

MacCann

Roberts

R. D.

(2014). Development of the short form of the Situational Test of Emotional Understanding-Brief (STEU-B) using item response theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 65, 3–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.01.051

Allport

G. W.

(1942). The use of personal documents in psychological science: Prepared for the Committee on Appraisal of Research. Social Science Research Council. https://doi.org/10.1037/11389-000

Allport

G. W.

(1961). Pattern and growth in personality. Holt, Reinhart & Winston.

Azucar

Marengo

Settanni

(2018). Predicting the Big 5 personality traits from digital footprints on social media: A meta-analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 124, 150–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.12.018

Back

M. D.

Stopfer

J. M.

Vazire

Gaddis

Schmukle

S. C.

Egloff

Gosling

S. D.

(2010). Facebook profiles reflect actual personality, not self-idealization. Psychological Science, 21(3), 372–374. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797609360756

Bateman

C. R.

Valentine

S. R.

(2021). Consumers’ personality characteristics, judgment of salesperson ethical treatment, and nature of purchase involvement. Journal of Business Ethics, 169(2), 309–331.

Berry

C. M.

Page

R. C.

Sackett

P. R.

(2007). Effects of Self-deceptive enhancement on personality-job performance relationships. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 15(1), 94–109. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2389.2007.00374.x

Biaggio

M. K.

(1980). Assessment of anger arousal. Journal of Personality Assessment, 44(3), 289–298. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4403_12

10.

Bleidorn

Hopwood

C. J.

(2019). Using machine learning to advance personality assessment and theory. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 23(2), 190–203. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868318772990

11.

Bleidorn

Hopwood

C. J.

Back

M. D.

Denissen

J. J. A.

Hennecke

Jokela

Kandler

Lucas

R. E.

Luhmann

Orth

Roberts

B. W.

Wagner

Wrzus

Zimmermann

(2020). Longitudinal experience-wide association studies—A framework for studying personality change. European Journal of Personality, 34(3), 285–300. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2247

12.

Bornstein

R. F.

(2007). Toward a process-based framework for classifying personality tests: Comment on Meyer and Kurtz (2006). Journal of Personality Assessment, 89(2), 202–207. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890701518776

13.

Bornstein

R. F.

(2011). Toward a process-focused model of test score validity: Improving psychological assessment in science and practice. Psychological Assessment, 23(2), 532–544. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022402

14.

Bowers

K. S.

(1984). The unconscious reconsidered ( Meichenbaum

, Ed.). Wiley-Interscience.

15.

Bowers

K. S.

(1987). “Revisioning the unconscious”: Response to commentaries. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 28(2), 124–132. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0079887

16.

Boyle

G. J.

Saklofske

D. H.

Matthews

(2012). Introduction: Clinical neuropsychological measurement and assessment. In Boyle, G. J., Saklofske, D. H., & Matthews, G. (Eds),Psychological assessment: Vol. III. Sage.

17.

Briceño

E. M.

Arce Rentería

Gross

A. L.

Jones

R. N.

Gonzalez

Wong

Weir

D. R.

Langa

K. M.

Manly

J. J.

(2023). A cultural neuropsychological approach to harmonization of cognitive data across culturally and linguistically diverse older adult populations. Neuropsychology, 37(3), 247–257. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000816

18.

Brigandt

Love

(2023). Reductionism in biology. In Zalta

E. N.

Nodelman

(Eds.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of philosophy (Summer 2023). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/reduction-biology/

19.

Buss

D. M.

Craik

K. H.

(1983). The act frequency approach to personality. Psychological Review, 90(2), 105–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.90.2.105

20.

Calkins

M. W.

(1915). The self in scientific psychology. The American Journal of Psychology, 26(4), 495–524. https://doi.org/10.2307/1412811

21.

Campbell

D. T.

Fiske

D. W.

(1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56(2), 81–105. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0046016

22.

Carere

Locurto

(2018). Interaction between animal personality and animal cognition. Current Zoology, 57(4), 491–498.

23.

Carlson

E. N.

Vazire

Furr

R. M.

(2011). Meta-insight: Do people really know how others see them? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(4), 831–846. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024297

24.

Carroll

J. B.

(1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies. Cambridge University Press.

25.

Cattell

R. B.

(1965). The scientific analysis of personality. Penguin Books.

26.

Chan

(2009). So why ask me? Are self-report data really that bad? In Lance

C. E.

Vandenberg

R. J.

(Eds.), Statistical and methodological myths and urban legends: Doctrine, verity and fable in the organizational and social sciences (pp. 309–336). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

27.

Chapman

B. P.

Goldberg

L. R.

(2017). Act-frequency signatures of the Big Five. Personality and Individual Differences, 116, 201–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.04.049

28.

Chapman

L. J.

Chapman

J. P.

Raulin

M. L.

(1978). Body-image aberration in schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87(4), 399–407. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.87.4.399

29.

Chartrand

T. L.

Bargh

J. A.

(2002). Nonconscious motivations: Their activation, operation, and consequences. In Tesser

Stapel

D. A.

Wood

J. V.

(Eds.), Self and motivation: Emerging psychological perspectives (pp. 13–41). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10448-001

30.

Connelly

B. S.

Hülsheger

U. R.

(2012). A narrower scope or a clearer lens for personality? Examining sources of observers’ advantages over self-reports for predicting performance. Journal of Personality, 80(3), 603–631. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00744.x

31.

Connelly

B. S.

Ones

D. S.

(2010). An other perspective on personality: Meta-analytic integration of observers’ accuracy and predictive validity. Psychological Bulletin, 136(6), 1092–1122. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021212

32.

Connolly

J. J.

Kavanagh

E. J.

Viswesvaran

(2007). The convergent validity between self and observer ratings of personality: A meta-analytic review. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 15(1), 110–117. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2389.2007.00371.x

33.

Costa

P. T.

McCrae

R. R.

(1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual. Psychological Assessment Resources.

34.

Craik

K. H.

(2008). Reputation: A network interpretation. Oxford University Press.

35.

Cramer

(2015). Defense mechanisms: 40 years of empirical research. Journal of Personality Assessment, 97(2), 114–122. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2014.947997

36.

Csikszentimihalyi

(1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. Harper & Row.

37.

Cvencek

Meltzoff

A. N.

Maddox

C. D.

Nosek

B. A.

Rudman

L. A.

Devos

Dunham

Baron

A. S.

Steffens

M. C.

Lane

Horcajo

Ashburn-Nardo

Quinby

Srivastava

S. B.

Schmidt

Aidman

Tang

Farnham

Mellott

D. S.

. . . Greenwald

A. G.

(2021). Meta-analytic use of balanced identity theory to validate the implicit association test. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 47(2), 185–200. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220916631

38.

Day

A. L.

Carroll

S. A.

(2008). Faking emotional intelligence (EI): Comparing response distortion on ability and trait-based EI measures. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 29(6), 761–784. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.485

39.

Deci

E. L.

Ryan

R. M.

(2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology/psychologie Canadienne, 49(3), 182–185.

40.

De Los Reyes

Augenstein

T. M.

Wang

Thomas

S. A.

Drabick

D. A. G.

Burgers

D. E.

Rabinowitz

. (2015). The validity of the multi-informant approach to assessing child and adolescent mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 141(4), 858–900. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038498

41.

Dennett

D. C.

(1978). Toward a cognitive theory of consciousness. In Dennett

D. C.

(Ed.), Brainstorms: Philosophical essays on mind and psychology (pp. 149–173). MIT Press.

42.

Dodorico McDonald

. (2008). Measuring personality constructs: The advantages and disadvantages of self-reports, informant reports and behavioural assessments. Enquire, 1(1), 75–94.

43.

Duncker

Lees

L. S.

(1945). On problem-solving. Psychological Monographs, 58(5), i–113. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0093599

44.

Dunning

(2005). Self-insight: Roadblocks and detours on the path to knowing thyself. Psychology Press.

45.

Durkee

P. K.

Lukaszewski

A. W.

von Rueden

C. R.

Gurven

M. D.

Buss

D. M.

Tucker-Drob

E. M.

(2022). Niche diversity predicts personality structure across 115 nations. Psychological Science, 33(2), 285–298. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211031571

46.

Eid

Nussbeck

F. W.

(2009). The multitrait-multimethod matrix at 50! Methodology: European Journal of Research Methods for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 5(3), 71–71. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-2241.5.3.71

47.

Ellison

W. D.

Trahan

A. C.

Pinzon

J. C.

Gillespie

M. E.

Simmons

L. M.

King

K. Y.

(2020). For whom, and for what, is experience sampling more accurate than retrospective report? Personality and Individual Differences, 163, 110071. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110071

48.

Embretson

S. E.

(2016). Understanding examinees’ responses to items: Implications for measurement. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 35(3), 6–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/emip.12117

49.

Embretson

S. E.

Reise

S. P.

(2000). Item response theory for psychologists. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

50.

Emmons

R. A.

King

L. A.

(1988). Conflict among personal strivings: Immediate and long-term implications for psychological and physical well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1040–1048. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1040

51.

Ericsson

K. A.

Simon

H. A.

(1980). Verbal reports as data. Psychological Review, 87(3), 215–251. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.87.3.215

52.

Felici

Madeddu

Doering

Clarkin

J. F.

Preti

(2023). Knowing me, knowing you: A systematic review of object relations assessment. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 40, 309–319. https://doi.org/10.1037/pap0000460

53.

Fiske

D. W.

(1987). On understanding our methods and their effects. Diagnostica, 33(3), 188–194.

54.

Fiske

S. T.

Bersoff

D. N.

Borgida

Deaux

Heilman

M. E.

(1991). Social science research on trial: Use of sex stereotyping research in Price Waterhouse v Hopkins. American Psychologist, 46(10), 1049–1060. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.46.10.1049

55.

Forgas

J. P.

Bower

G. H.

(1987). Mood effects on person-perception judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(1), 53–60. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.1.53

56.

Forgas

J. P.

Bower

G. H.

(2001). Mood effects on person-perception judgments. In Parrott

W. G.

Parrott

W. G.

(Eds.), Emotions in social psychology: Essential readings (1–Book, Section, pp. 204–215). Psychology Press. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2000-12576-011&site=ehost-live

57.

Frank

L. K.

(1939). Projective methods for the study of personality. The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 8, 389–413. https://doi.org/10.1080/doi.org/00223980.1939.9917671

58.

Freund

P. A.

Kasten

(2012). How smart do you think you are? A meta-analysis on the validity of self-estimates of cognitive ability. Psychological Bulletin, 138(2), 296–321. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026556

59.

Funder

D. C.

(1995). On the accuracy of personality judgment: A realistic approach. Psychological Review, 102(4), 652–670. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.102.4.652

60.

Funder

D. C.

(1997). The personality puzzle. W. W. Norton.

61.

Funder

D. C.

(2016). The personality puzzle (7th ed.). W.W. Norton.

62.

Furnham

(2017). The contribution of others’ methods in recruitment and selection: Biodata, references, résumés and CVs. In Goldstein

H. W.

Pulakos

E. D.

Passmore

Semedo

(Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell handbook of the psychology of recruitment, selection and employee retention (pp. 202–225). Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118972472.ch10

63.

Furr

R. M.

(2009). Personality psychology as a truly behavioural science. European Journal of Personality, 23(5), 369–401. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.724

64.

Furukawa

(1927). A study of temperament by means of human blood groups. Japanese Journal of Psychology, 2(4), 612–634. https://doi.org/10.4992/jjpsy.2.612

65.

Galton

(1869). Hereditary genius: An inquiry into its laws and consequences. Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1037/13474-000

66.

Gardiner

Lee

Baranski

Funder

(2020). Happiness around the world: A combined etic-emic approach across 63 countries. PLOS ONE, 15(12), Article e0242718. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242718

67.

Geiser

Simmons

T. G.

(2021). Do method effects generalize across traits (and what if they don’t)? Journal of Personality, 89, 382–401. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12625

68.

Gertler

(2003). Philosophical issues about self-knowledge. In Gertler

(Ed.), Privileged access: Philosophical accounts of self-knowledge (1–Book, Section, p. xxii). Ashgate Publishers.

69.

Goff

Ackerman

P. L.

(1992). Personality-intelligence relations: Assessment of typical intellectual engagement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(4), 537–552. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.84.4.537

70.

Graceffo

R. A.

Mihura

J. L.

Meyer

G. J.

(2014). A meta-analysis of an implicit measure of personality functioning: The Mutuality of Autonomy Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 96(6), 581–595. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2014.919299

71.

Greenwald

A. G.

Banaji

M. R.

(1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102(1), 4–27. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.102.1.4

72.

Gresham

F. M.

Elliott

S. N.

Cook

C. R.

Vance

M. J.

Kettler

(2010). Cross-informant agreement for ratings for social skill and problem behavior ratings: An investigation of the Social Skills Improvement System—Rating Scales. Psychological Assessment, 22(1), 157–166. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018124

73.

Hall

J. A.

Park

Song

Cody

M. J.

(2010). Strategic misrepresentation in online dating: The effects of gender, self-monitoring, and personality traits. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 27(1), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407509349633

74.

Hambleton

R. K.

Jones

R. W.

(1993). Comparison of classical test theory and item response theory and their applications to test development. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 12(3), 38–47. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-3992.1993.tb00543.x

75.

Hampton

R. S.

Varnum

M. E. W.

(2018). Do cultures vary in self-enhancement? ERP, behavioral, and self-report evidence. Social Neuroscience, 13(5), 566–578. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2017.1361471

76.

Harari

G. M.

Vaid

S. S.

Müller

S. R.

Stachl

Marrero

Schoedel

Bühner

Gosling

S. D.

Rauthmann

(2020). Personality sensing for theory development and assessment in the digital age. European Journal of Personality, 34(5), 649–669.

77.

Harsh

C. M.

Beebe-Center

J. G.

Beebe-Center

(1939). Further evidence regarding preferential judgment of polygonal forms. The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 7, 343–350. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1939.9917641

78.

Henrich

(2020). The WEIRDest people in the world: How the west became psychologically peculiar and particularly prosperous. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

79.

Henry

E. R.

(1966). Conference on the use of biographical data in psychology. American Psychologist, 21(3), 247–249. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0021141

80.

Herreen

Zajac

I. T.

(2017). The reliability and validity of a self-report measure of cognitive abilities in older adults: More personality than cognitive function. Journal of Intelligence, 6(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence6010001

81.

Higgins

E. T.

(1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94(3), 319–340. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.94.3.319

82.

Hofmann

Gawronski

Gschwendner

Schmitt

(2005). A meta-analysis on the correlation between the implicit association test and explicit self-report measures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(10), 1369–1385. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205275613

83.

Hogan

Shelton

(1998). A socioanalytic perspective on job performance. Human Performance, 11(2–3), 129–144. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327043hup1102&3_2

84.

Hoosen

Davids

E. L.

Vries

P. J.

Shung-King

(2018). “The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) in Africa: A scoping review of its application and validation”: Correction. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 12, 11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-018-0217-4

85.

Hubley

A. M.

Zumbo

B. D.

(2017). Response processes in the context of validity: Setting the stage. In Zumbo

B. D.

Hubley

A. M.

(Eds.), Understanding and investigating response processes in validation research (Vol. 69, pp. 1–12). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56129-5_1

86.

Hughes

(1927). Theory and practice in psychology. Journal of Philosophy, 24, 113–120. https://doi.org/10.2307/2015081

87.

Ishitani

T. T.

(2010). Exploring the effects of congruence and Holland’s personality codes on job satisfaction: An application of hierarchical linear modeling techniques. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 76(1), 16–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2009.06.014

88.

Jacoby

L. L.

Witherspoon

(1982). Remembering without awareness. Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue Canadienne de Psychologie, 36(2), 300–324. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0080638

89.

James

(1920). Psychology: A briefer course (Original work published 1892). H. Holt.

90.

Jeannerod

(2003). The mechanism of self-recognition in humans. Behavioural Brain Research, 142(1–2), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0166-4328(02)00384-4

91.

Joint_Committee. (1999). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Psychological Association.

92.

Joint_Committee. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Psychological Association.

93.

Joseph

D. L.

Jin

Newman

D. A.

O’Boyle

E. H.

(2015). Why does self-reported emotional intelligence predict job performance? A meta-analytic investigation of mixed EI. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(2), 298–342. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037681

94.

Kelley

T. L.

(1916). A constructive ability test. Journal of Educational Psychology, 7(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0070426

95.

Kelsey

K. R.

Rogers

Robinson

E. V.

(2015). Self-report measures of psychopathy: What is their role in forensic assessments? Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 37(3), 380–391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-014-9475-5

96.

Kenny

D. A.

West

T. V.

(2010). Similarity and agreement in self- and other perception: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14(2), 196–213. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868309353414

97.

Kihlstrom

J. F.

(2021). Consciousness, the unconscious, and the self. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 9, 78–92. https://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000285

98.

Klein

S. B.

(2013). Klein and Loftus’s model of trait self-knowledge: The importance of familiarizing oneself with the foundational research prior to reading about its neuropsychological applications. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, Article 699. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00699

99.

Klein

S. B.

Cosmides

Murray

E. R.

Tooby

(2004). On the acquisition of knowledge about personality traits: Does learning about the self engage different mechanisms than learning about others. Social Cognition, 22(4), 367–390. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.22.4.367.38295

100.

Kourany

R. F.

Gwinn

Martin

J. E.

(1980). Adolescent babysitting: A 30-year-old phenomenon. Adolescence, 15(60), 939–945.

101.

Kurman

(2002). Measured cross-cultural differences in self-enhancement and the sensitivity of the self-enhancement measure to the modesty response. Cross-Cultural Research: The Journal of Comparative Social Science, 36(1), 73–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069397102036001004

102.

Lai

Sun

Xiao

(2020). Automatic personality identification using students’ online learning behavior. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 13(1), 26–37. https://doi.org/10.1109/TLT.2019.2924223

103.

Lang

(2021, November 13). AI’s medical applications come with risks. Wall Street Journal, A 12.

104.

Larsen

R. J.

Buss

D. M.

(2014). Personality psychology: Domains of knowledge about human nature. McGraw Hill.

105.

Lee

Ashton

M. C.

(2017). Acquaintanceship and self/observer agreement in personality judgment. Journal of Research in Personality, 70, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2017.05.001

106.

L. M. W.

Dai

(2023). The relationship between personality traits and well-being via brain functional connectivity. Journal of Happiness Studies: An Interdisciplinary Forum on Subjective Well-Being, 24(6), 2127–2152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-023-00674-y

107.

Linville

P. W.

(1987). Self-complexity as a cognitive buffer against stress-related illness and depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(4), 663–676. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.4.663

108.

Lira

O’Brien

J. M.

Peña

P. A.

Galla

B. M.

D’Mello

Yeager

D. S.

Defnet

Kautz

Munkacsy

Duckworth

A. L.

(2022). Large studies reveal how reference bias limits policy applications of self-report measures. Scientific Reports, 12(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-23373-9

109.

Lohr

(2013, February 1). The origins of “Big Data”: An etymological detective story. Bits Blog. https://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/02/01/the-origins-of-big-data-an-etymological-detective-story/

110.

Mael

F. A.

(1991). A conceptual rationale for the domain and attributes of biodata items. Personnel Psychology, 44(4), 763–792. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1991.tb00698.x

111.

Mael

F. A.

Hirsch

A. C.

(1993). Rainforest empiricism and quasi-rationality: Two approaches to objective biodata. Personnel Psychology, 46(4), 719–738. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1993.tb01566.x

112.

Malloy

T. E.

Albright

Diaz-Loving

Dong

Lee

Y. T.

(2004). Agreement in personality judgments within and between nonoverlapping social groups in collectivist cultures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(1), 106–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203258863

113.

Markus

Nurius

(1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41(9), 954–969. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.41.9.954

114.

Mashey

J. R.

(1998). Big Data. . .and the next wave of InfraStress. Silicon Graphics. https://www.usenix.org/legacy/publications/library/proceedings/usenix99/invited_talks/mashey.pdf

115.

Mayer

J. D.

(1995). The system-topics framework and the structural arrangement of systems within and around personality. Journal of Personality, 63(3), 459–493. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1995.tb00503.x

116.

Mayer

J. D.

(1998a). A systems framework for the field of personality. Psychological Inquiry, 9(2), 118–144. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0902_10

117.

Mayer

J. D.

(1998b). The systems framework: Reception, improvement, and implementation. Psychological Inquiry, 9(2), 169–179. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0902_19

118.

Mayer

J. D.

(2004). A classification system for the data of personality psychology and adjoining fields. Review of General Psychology, 8(3), 208–219. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.8.3.208

119.

Mayer

J. D.

(2005). A tale of two visions: Can a new view of personality help integrate psychology? American Psychologist, 60(4), 294–307. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.4.294

120.

Mayer

J. D.

(2007). Asserting the definition of personality. P: The Online Newsletter for Personality Science, 1(1). https://www.personality-arp.org/html/newsletter01/jdm.pdf

121.

Mayer

J. D.

(2015). The personality systems framework: Current theory and development. Journal of Research in Personality, 56, 4–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2015.01.001

122.

Mayer

J. D.

(2019). An integrated approach to personality assessment based on the personality systems framework. Journal of Personality Assessment, 102, 443–456. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2018.1555539

123.

Mayer

J. D.

Bryan

V. M.

(2024). Technical supplement for “On personality measures” and their data.” Open Science Foundation. https://osf.io/a27k3

124.

Mayer

J. D.

Carlsmith

K. M.

Chabot

H. F.

(1998). Describing the person’s external environment: Conceptualizing and measuring the life space. Journal of Research in Personality, 32(3), 253–296. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1998.2220

125.

Mayer

J. D.

Caruso

D. R.

Panter

A. T.

(2021). How do people think about understanding personality—And what do such thoughts reflect? Personality and Individual Differences, 178, 110671.

126.

Mayer

J. D.

Gaschke

Y. N.

Braverman

D. L.

Evans

T. W.

(1992). Mood-congruent judgment is a general effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(1), 119–132. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.63.1.119

127.

Mayer

J. D.

Lin

S. C.

Korogodsky

(2011). Exploring the universality of personality judgments: Evidence from the Great Transformation (1000 BCE-200 BCE). Review of General Psychology, 15, 65–76. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020711

128.

Mayer

J. D.

Panter

A. T.

Caruso

D. R.

(2020). When people estimate their personal intelligence who is overconfident? Who is accurate? Journal of Personality, 88, 1129–1144. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12561

129.

McAdams

D. P.

(1996). Personality, Modernity, and the storied self: A contemporary framework for studying persons. Psychological Inquiry, 7(4), 295–321. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0704_1

130.

McAdams

D. P.

(2006). The person: A new introduction to personality psychology. John Wiley.

131.

McAdams

D. P.

Pals

J. L.

(2006). A new Big Five: Fundamental principles for an integrative science of personality. American Psychologist, 61(3), 204–217. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.3.204

132.

McClelland

D. C.

Koestner

Weinberger

(1989). How do self-attributed and implicit motives differ? Psychological Review, 96(4), 690–702. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.96.4.690

133.

McDaniel

M. A.

Snell

A. F.

(1999). Holland’s theory and occupational information. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 55(1), 74–85. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.1999.1698

134.

McLean

K. C.

Syed

Pasupathi

Adler

J. M.

Dunlop

W. L.

Drustrup

Fivush

Graci

M. E.

Lilgendahl

J. P.

Lodi-Smith

McAdams

D. P.

McCoy

T. P.

(2020). The empirical structure of narrative identity: The initial Big Three. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(4), 920–944. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000247

135.

Meyer

G. J.

Finn

S. E.

Eyde

L. D.

Kay

G. G.

Moreland

K. L.

Dies

R. R.

Eisman

E. J.

Kubiszyn

T. W.

Reed

G. M.

(2001). Psychological testing and psychological assessment: A review of evidence and issues. American Psychologist, 56(2), 128–165. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.2.128

136.

Mihura

J. L.

Meyer

G. J.

Dumitrascu

Bombel

(2013). The validity of individual Rorschach variables: Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of the comprehensive system. Psychological Bulletin, 139(3), 548–605. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029406

137.

Mischel

Shoda

Mendoza-Denton

(2002). Situation-behavior profiles as a locus of consistency in personality. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11(2), 50–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00166

138.

Morgan

C. D.

Murray

H. A.

(1935). A method for investigating fantasies: The thematic apperception test. Archives of Neurology & Psychiatry, 34, 289–306. https://doi.org/10.1001/archneurpsyc.1935.02250200049005

139.

Morgan

J. H.

(2014). The interpersonal psychotherapy of Harry Stack Sullivan: Remember. Journal of Psychology & Psychotherapy, 4(6). https://www.longdom.org/open-access/the-interpersonal-psychotherapy-of-harry-stack-sullivan-remembering-the-legacy-10603.html

140.

Mount

M. K.

Barrick

M. R.

Strauss

J. P.

(1994). Validity of observer ratings of the Big Five personality factors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79(2), 272–280. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.79.2.272

141.

Nagel

Dennett

D. C.

Nelson

T. O.

Leonesio

R. J.

Landwehr

R. S.

Narens

Vesonder

G. T.

Voss

J. F.

Knox

V. J.

(1992). Privileged access and consciousness. In Nelson

T. O.

(Ed.), Metacognition: Core readings (1–Book, Section, pp. 27–99). Allyn & Bacon.

142.

Nemechek

Olson

K. R.

(1999). Five-factor personality similarity and marital adjustment. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 27(3), 309–318. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.1999.27.3.309

143.

Neubauer

A. C.

Hofer

(2021). Self-estimates of abilities are a better reflection of individuals’ personality traits than of their abilities and are also strong predictors of professional interests. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.109850

144.

Newbury

J. B.

Arseneault

Moffitt

T. E.

Caspi

Danese

Baldwin

J. R.

Fisher

H. L.

(2018). Measuring childhood maltreatment to predict early-adult psychopathology: Comparison of prospective informant-reports and retrospective self-reports. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 96, 57–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.09.020

145.

Nisbett

R. E.

Wilson

T. D.

(1977). Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review, 84(3), 231–259. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.3.231

146.

Oldroyd

D. R.

(1986). The arch of knowledge. Methuen.

147.

Oltmanns

J. R.

Jackson

J. J.

Oltmanns

T. F.

(2020). Personality change: Longitudinal self-other agreement and convergence with retrospective-reports. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 118(5), 1065–1079. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000238

148.

Ong

(2002). Orality and literacy: Writing restructures consciousness. In Finkelstein

McCleery

(Eds.), The book history reader (pp. 105–117). Routledge.

149.

Paulhus

D. L.

(1984). Two-component models of socially desirable responding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(3), 598–609. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.46.3.598

150.

Paulhus

D. L.

Reid

D. B.

(1991). Enhancement and denial in socially desirable responding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(2), 307–317. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.60.2.307

151.

Paunonen

S. V.

Kam

(2014). The accuracy of roommate ratings of behaviors versus beliefs. Journal of Research in Personality, 52, 55–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2014.07.006

152.

Pervin

(2009). The relationship between biology and psychology. Roczniki Psychologiczne, XII(1), 7–21.

153.

Phan

L. V.

Rauthmann

J. F.

(2021). Personality computing: New frontiers in personality assessment. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 15(7), Article e12624. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12624

154.

Pincus

A. L.

Gurtman

M. B.

(2003). Interpersonal assessment. In Wiggins

J. S.

(Ed.), Paradigms of personality assessment (pp. 246–261). Guilford.

155.

Pintner

(1918). Intelligence as estimated from photographs. Psychological Review, 25(4), 286–296. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0072720

156.

Plato, Phaedrus, section 265e . (360 C.E.). http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0174%3Atext%3DPhaedrus%3Asection%3D265e

157.

Podsakoff

P. M.

MacKenzie

S. B.

Lee

J.-Y.

Podsakoff

N. P.

(2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879

158.

Ralph

L. J.

Foster

D. G.

Rocca

C. H.

(2020). Comparing prospective and retrospective reports of pregnancy intention in a longitudinal cohort of US women. Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 52(1), 39–48. https://doi.org/10.1363/psrh.12134

159.

Rau

Carlson

E. N.

Back

M. D.

Barranti

Gebauer

J. E.

Human

L. J.

Leising

Nestler

(2021). What is the structure of perceiver effects? On the importance of global positivity and trait-specificity across personality domains and judgment contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 120(3), 745–764. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000278

160.

Rich

G. J.

(1928). A biochemical approach to the study of personality. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 23(2), 158–175. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0072558

161.

Ryan

R. M.

Deci

E. L.

(2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68

162.

Saarimäki

Gotsopoulos

Jääskeläinen

I. P.

Lampinen

Vuilleumier

Hari

Sams

Nummenmaa

(2015). Discrete Neural Signatures of Basic Emotions. Cerebral Cortex, 26, 2563–2573. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cmedm&AN=25924952&site=ehost-live

163.

Salvador

C. E.

Kamikubo

Kraus

Hsiao

N.-C.

J.-F.

Karasawa

Kitayama

(2022). Self-referential processing accounts for cultural variation in self-enhancement versus criticism: An electrocortical investigation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 151(8), 1904–1918. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001154

164.

San Martin

Schug

Maddux

W. W

. (2019). Relational mobility and cultural differences in analytic and holistic thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 116(4), 495–518. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000142

165.

Schmitt

D. P.

Allik

(2005). Simultaneous administration of the Rosenberg self-esteem scale in 53 nations: Exploring the universal and culture-specific features of global self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(4), 623–642. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.623

166.

Schuler

Ruggero

C. J.

Mahaffey

Gonzalez

A. L.

Callahan

Boals

Waszczuk

M. A.

Luft

B. J.

Kotov

(2021). When hindsight is not 20/20: Ecological momentary assessment of PTSD symptoms versus retrospective report. Assessment, 28(1), 238–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191119869826

167.

Schultheiss

O. C.

Schultheiss

(2014). Implicit motive profile analysis: An if-then contingency approach to the picture-story exercise. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 8(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12082

168.

Sharabi

L. L.

Caughlin

J. P.

(2019). Deception in online dating: Significance and implications for the first offline date. New Media & Society, 21(1), 229–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818792425

169.

Sheldon

K. M.

Cheng

Hilpert

(2011). Understanding well-being and optimal functioning: Applying the Multilevel Personality in Context (MPIC) Model. Psychological Inquiry, 22, 1–16.

170.

Showers

C. J.

Ditzfeld

C. P.

Zeigler-Hill

(2015). Self-concept structure and the quality of self-knowledge. Journal of Personality, 83(5), 535–551. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12130

171.

Singer

J. L.

(1984). The private personality. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 10(1), 7–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167284101002

172.

Slabbinck

De Houwer

Van Kenhove

(2013). Convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity of the Pictorial Attitude Implicit Association Test and the Picture Story Exercise as measures of the implicit power motive. European Journal of Personality, 27(1), 30–38. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.1846

173.

Snyder

(1974). Self-monitoring of expressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30(4), 526–537. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0037039

174.

Spencer

(1938). The frankness of subjects on personality measures. Journal of Educational Psychology, 29(1), 26–35. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0061518

175.

Stagner

Drought

(1935). Measuring children’s attitudes toward their parents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 26(3), 169–176. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0057443

176.

Stern

(1930). Meaning and interpretation. In Lamiell

J. T.

(Ed.), Uncovering critical personalism Readings from William Stern’s contributions to scientific psychology (pp. 163–186). Palgrave Macmillan/Springer Nature.

177.

Sun

Vazire

(2019). Do people know what they’re like in the moment? Psychological Science, 30(3), 405–414. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797618818476

178.

Tanguay

A. F. N.

Palombo

D. J.

Atance

C. M.

Renoult

Davidson

P. S. R.

(2020). Scrutinizing the grey areas of declarative memory: Do the self-reference and temporal orientation of a trait knowledge task modulate the Late Positive Component (LPC)? Neuropsychologia, 142, 107444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107444

179.

Tews

M. J.

Stafford

Tracey

J. B.

(2011). What matters most? The perceived importance of ability and personality for hiring decisions. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 52(2), 94–101. https://doi.org/10.1177/1938965510363377

180.

Thalmayer

A. G.

Job

Shino

E. N.

Robinson

S. L.

Saucier

(2021). ǂŪsigu: A mixed-method lexical study of character description in Khoekhoegowab. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 121(6), 1258–1283. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000372

181.

Tomkins

S. S.

(1987). Script theory. In Aronoff

Rabin

A. I.

Zucker

R. A.

(Eds.), The emergence of personality (pp. 147–216). Springer.

182.

Triandis

H. C.

Gelfand

M. J.

(1998). Converging measurement of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1), 118–128. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.118

183.

Valentine

K. A.

N. P.

Meltzer

A. L.

Tsai

M.-H.

(2020). Mate preferences for warmth-trustworthiness predict romantic attraction in the early stages of mate selection and satisfaction in ongoing relationships. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 46(2), 298–311. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167219855048

184.

van der Linden

Dunkel

C. S.

Figueredo

A. J.

Gurven

von Rueden

, & Woodley of Menie, M. A. (2018). How universal is the general factor of personality? An analysis of the big five in forager farmers of the Bolivian Amazon. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 49(7), 1081–1097. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022118774925

185.

Vazire

(2006). Informant reports: A cheap, fast, and easy method for personality assessment. Journal of Research in Personality, 40(5), 472–481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2005.03.003

186.

Vazire

Carlson

E. N.

(2011). Others sometimes know us better than we know ourselves. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(2), 104–108. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411402478

187.

Vicino

F. L.

Bass

B. M.

(1978). Lifespace variables and managerial success. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63(1), 81–88. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.63.1.81

188.

Ward

J. S.

Barker

(2013). Undefined by data: A Survey OF Big Data definitions. arXiv:1309.5821 [Cs]. http://arxiv.org/abs/1309.5821

189.

Watson

Tellegen

(1985). Toward a consensual structure of mood. Psychological Bulletin, 98(2), 219–235. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.219

190.

Weiner

I. B.

(1994). The Rorschach Inkblot Method (RIM) is not a test: Implications for theory and practice. Journal of Personality Assessment, 62(3), 498–504. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa6203_9

191.

Weiner

S. J.

Wang

Kelly

Sharma

Schwartz

(2020). How accurate is the medical record? A comparison of the physician’s note with a concealed audio recording in unannounced standardized patient encounters. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, 27(5), 770–775. https://doi.org/10.1093/jamia/ocaa027

192.

Weng

C. Y.

(2017). Data accuracy in electronic medical record documentation. JAMA Ophthalmology, 135(3), 232–233. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2016.5562

193.

Liu

Guo

Cai

Zhou

(2020). Couple similarity on personality, moral identity and spirituality predict life satisfaction of spouses and their offspring. Journal of Happiness Studies: An Interdisciplinary Forum on Subjective Well-Being, 21(3), 1037–1058. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00108-8

194.

Zeinoun

Daouk-Öyry

Choueiri

van de Vijver

F. J. R.

(2017). A mixed-methods study of personality conceptions in the Levant: Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and the West Bank. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113(3), 453–465. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000148

195.

Zell

Krizan

(2014). Do people have insight into their abilities? A metasynthesis. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9(2), 111–125. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613518075

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.28 MB

On Personality Measures and Their Data: A Classification of Measurement Approaches and Their Recommended Uses

Abstract

Keywords

Get full access to this article

References

Supplementary Material