The author argues that the self is a multifaceted entity that does not easily submit to clear and precise description. The aspect of self studied by most investigators is actually a subset of the cognitive and neural underpinnings of “self” and not the “self” of first-person subjectivity. The author then looks at the dominant theoretical treatment of human long-term memory—the systems approach—and examines how the construct of “self” is situated in this framework. Finally, he reviews the best-known paradigm for exploring the role of self in memory—the self-reference effect (SRE) manipulation. He argues that there is not one SRE but rather a family of related SREs that are influenced by a variety of variables and contexts. Accordingly, researchers must exercise caution when attempting to draw conclusions about the self from the results of SRE memory performance.
AboudF. (1980, June). Self referent memory for concrete and abstract personal adjectives. Paper presented at the meeting of the Canadian Psychological Association, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
2.
AgatsteinF. CBuchananD. B. (1984). Public and private self-consciousness and the recall of self-relevant information. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 10, 314-325.
3.
AndersonJ. R. (1983). A spreading activation theory of memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 22, 261-295.
4.
AndersonJ. R.RederL. M. (1979). An elaborative processing explanation of depth of processing. In CermakL. S.CraikF. I. M. (Eds.), Levels of processing in human memory (pp. 385-403). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
5.
AndreasenN. C.O’LearyD. S.ParadisoS.CizadloT.ArndtS.WatkinsG. L.. . . HichwaR. D. (1999). The cerebellum plays a role in conscious episodic memory retrieval. Human Brain Mapping, 8, 226-234.
6.
BaillieJ. (1993). Problems in personal identity. New York, NY: Paragon House.
7.
BanajiM. R.GreenwaldA. G. (1984, April). When does self-reference facilitate recall?Paper presented at the meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association, Baltimore, MD.
8.
BattigW. F.BellezzaF. S. (1979). Organization and levels of processing. In PuffC. R. (Ed.), Memory organization and structure (pp. 321-346). New York, NY: Academic Press.
9.
BeggI. (1978). Similarity and contrast in memory for relations. Memory & Cognition, 6, 509-517.
10.
BellezzaF. S. (1984). The self as a mnemonic device: The role of internal cues. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 506-516.
11.
BellezzaF. S. (1986). Mental cues and verbal reports in learning. In BowerG. H. (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 20, pp. 237-273). New York, NY: Academic Press.
12.
BellezzaF. S.CheesmanF. L.ReddyB. G. (1977). Organization and semantic elaboration in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 3, 539-550.
13.
BennettC. M.BairdA. A.MillerM. B.WolfordG. L. (2010). Neural correlates of interspecies perspective taking in the post-mortem Atlantic Salmon: An argument for multiple comparisons correction. Journal of Serendipitous and Unexpected Results, 1, 1-5.
14.
BennettC. M.MillerM. B. (2010). How reliable are the results from functional magnetic resonance imaging?Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1191, 133-155.
15.
BerneckerS. (2010). Memory: A philosophical study. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
16.
BowerG. H.GilliganS. G. (1979). Remembering information related to one’s self. Journal of Research in Personality, 13, 420-432.
17.
BradleyB.MathewsA. (1983). Negative self-schemata in clinical depression. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 22, 173-181.
18.
BrownP.KeenanJ. M.PottsG. R. (1986). The self-reference effect with imagery encoding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 897-906.
19.
BrussG. (1986). Categorization of orienting referents and the self-reference effect (Unpublished master’s thesis). Illinois State University, Normal, IL.
20.
BungeM. A. (2010). Matter and mind: A philosophical inquiry. New York, NY: Springer.
21.
BurnsD. J.BurnsS. A.HwangA. J. (2011). Adaptive memory: Determining the proximate mechanisms responsible for the memorial advantage of survival processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 37, 206-218.
22.
ButlerJ. (1819). Of personal identity, in the analogy of religion. London, England: Allman and Sawers. (Original work published 1736)
23.
CalkinsM. W. (1915). The self in scientific psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 12, 495-524.
24.
CermakL. S. (1984). The episodic-semantic memory distinction in amnesia. In SquireL. R.ButtersN. (Eds.), Neuropsychology of memory (pp. 45-54). New York, NY: Guilford.
25.
ChalmersD. J. (1996). The conscious mind: In search of a fundamental theory. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
26.
ChewB. R. (1983). Selective recall of self- and other-referenced information (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
27.
ChurchlandP. S. (1986). Neurophilosophy: Toward a unified science of the mind-brain. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
28.
CohenN. J. (1984). Preserved learning capacity in amnesia: Evidence for multiple memory systems. In SquireL. R.ButtersN. (Eds.), Neuropsychology of memory (pp. 83-103). New York, NY: Guilford.
29.
ConwayM. A. (2005). Memory and the Self. Journal of Memory and Language, 53, 594-628.
30.
CraikF. I. M. (1979). Human memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 30, 63-102.
31.
CraikF. I. M.TulvingE. (1975). Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 11, 268-294.
32.
CrispinW.SmithB. C.MacdonaldC. (Eds.). (1998). Knowing our own minds. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
33.
DaintonB. (2008). The phenomenal self. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
34.
DamasioA. R. (1999). The feeling of what happens: Body and emotion in the making of consciousness. Orlando, FL: Harcourt.
35.
DennettD. C. (1996). Kinds of minds. New York, NY: Basic Books.
36.
DerryP. A.KuiperN. A. (1981). Schematic processing and self-reference in clinical depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90, 286-297.
37.
EarleW. (1955). Objectivity: An essay on phenomenological ontology. New York, NY: The Noonday Press.
38.
EarleW. E. (1972). The autobiographical consciousness. Chicago, IL: Quadrangle Books.
39.
EcclesJ. C. (1994). How the self controls its brain. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.
40.
EinsteinG. O.HuntR. R. (1980). Levels of processing and organization: Additive effects of individual item and relational processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 6, 588-598.
41.
FergusonT. J.RuleG. R.CarlsonD. (1983). Memory for personally relevant information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 251-261.
42.
FormanR. K. C. (Ed.). (1990). The problem of pure consciousness. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
43.
FossatiP.HevenorS. J.LepageM.GrahamS. J.GradyC.KeightleyM. L.. . . MaybergH. (2004). Distributed self in episodic memory: Neural correlates of successful retrieval of self-encoded positive and negative personality traits. NeuroImage, 22, 1596-1604.
44.
FosterJ. (1991). The immaterial self. New York, NY: Routledge.
45.
FosterJ. K.JelicicM. (1999). Memory: Systems, process, or function?New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
46.
FriedmanA.PullyblankJ. (1982, November). Remembering information about oneself and others: The role of distinctiveness. Paper presented at meeting of the Psychonomic Society, Minneapolis, MN.
47.
FurlongE. J. (1951). A study in memory. New York, NY: Thomas Nelson & Sons.
48.
GallagherS.ShearJ. (1999). Models of the self. Thorverton, UK: Imprint Academic.
49.
GanellenR. J.CarverC. S. (1985). Why does self-reference promote incidental encoding?Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 284-300.
50.
GardnerH. (1985). The mind’s new science: A history of the cognitive revolution. New York, NY: Basic Books.
51.
GeJ.GuX.JiM.HanS. (2009). Neurocognitive processes of the religious leader in Christians. Human Brain Mapping, 30, 4012-4024.
52.
GennaroR. J. (1996). Consciousness and self-consciousness. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing.
53.
GergenK. J. (1971). The concept of self. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
54.
GilesJ. (1997). No self to be found. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
55.
GillihanS. J.FarahM. J. (2005). Is self special? A critical review of evidence from experimental psychology and cognitive neuroscience. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 76-97.
56.
GliskyE. L.MarguineM. J. (2009). Semantic and self-referential processing of positive and negative trait adjectives in older adults. Memory, 17, 144-157.
57.
GreenwaldA. G. (1981). Self and memory. In BowerG. H. (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 15, pp. 201-236). New York, NY: Academic Press.
58.
GrilliM. D.GliskyE. L. (2010). Self-imagining enhances recognition memory in memory-impaired individuals with neurological damage. Neuropsychology, 24, 698-710.
59.
GrilliM. D.GilskyE. L. (2011). The self-imagination effect: Benefits of a self-referential encoding strategy on cued recall in memory-impaired individuals with neurological damage. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17, 929-933.
60.
HalpinJ. A.PuffC. R.MasonH. F.MartsonS. P. (1984). Self-reference and incidental recall by children. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 22, 87-89.
61.
HamamiA.SerbunS. J.GutchessA. H. (2011). Self-referencing enhances memory specificity with age. Psychology and Aging, 26, 636-646.
62.
HanS.GuX.MaoL.GeJ.WangG.MaY. (2010). Neural substrates of self-referential processing in Chinese Buddhists. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 5, 332-339.
63.
HareJ. H.MellorC.AzmiS. (2007). Episodic memory in adults with autistic spectrum disorders: Recall for self-versus other-experienced events. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 28, 317-329.
64.
HaskerW. (1999). The emergent self. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
65.
HaslamC.JettenJ.HaslamS. A.PuglieseC.TonksJ. (2011). “I remember therefore I am, and I am therefore I remember”: Exploring the contributions of episodic and semantic self-knowledge to strength of identity. British Journal of Psychology, 102, 184-203.
66.
HendersonH. A.ZahkaN. E.KojkowskiN. M.IngeA. P.SchwartzC. B.HilemanC. M.. . . MundyP. C. (2009). Self-referenced memory, social cognition, and symptom presentation in Autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 853-861.
67.
HigginsE. T.BarghJ. A. (1987). Social cognition and social perception. Annual Review of Psychology, 38, 369-425.
68.
HullJ. G.LevyA. S. (1979). The organizational functions of the self: An alternative to the Duval and Wicklund model of self-awareness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 756-768.
69.
HumphreysM. S. (1978). Item and relational information: A case for context independent retrieval. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 17, 175-187.
70.
HuntR. R.EinsteinG. O. (1981). Relational and item-specific information in memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 20, 497-514.
71.
HusserlE. (1964). The phenomenology of internal time-consciousness. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
72.
HydeT. S.JenkinsJ. J. (1973). Recall for words as a function of semantic, graphic and syntactic orienting tasks. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 12, 471-480.
73.
JamesW. (1890). Principles of psychology (Vol. 1). New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company.
74.
JamesW. (1996). A pluralistic universe. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. (Original work published 1909)
75.
JohnstoneH. W. (1970). The problem of the self. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press.
76.
KarylowskiJ.BuczekM. (1984, August). Cognitive representation of self and others: Words and images. Paper presented at the 92nd Annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
77.
KatzA. N. (1987). Self-reference in the encoding of creative-relevant traits. Journal of Personality, 55, 97-120.
78.
KatzkoM. W. (2003). Unity versus multiplicity: A conceptual analysis of the term “self” and its use in personality theories. Journal of Personality, 71, 83-14.
79.
KeenanJ. M.BailletS. D. (1980). Memory for personally and socially significant events. In NickersonR. S. (Ed.), Attention and performance (Vol. 8, pp. 651-669). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
80.
KelleyW. M.MacraeC. N.WylandC. L.CaglarS.InatiS.HeathertonT. F. (2002). Finding the self? An event-related fMRI study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 15, 785-794.
81.
KendzierskiD. (1980). Self-schemata and scripts: The recall of self-referent and scriptal information. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 6, 23-29.
82.
KihlstromJ. F.BeerJ. S.KleinS. B. (2003). Self and identity as memory. In LearyM. R.TangneyJ. (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 68-90). New York, NY: Guilford.
83.
KihlstromJ. F.CantorN. (1984). Mental representations of the self. In BerkowitzL. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 17, pp. 1-47). New York, NY: Academic Press.
84.
KihlstromJ. F.CantorN.AlbrightJ. S.ChewB. R.KleinS. B.NiedenthalP. M. (1988). Information processing and the study of the self. In BerkowitzL. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 145-177). New York, NY: Academic Press.
85.
KihlstromJ. F.KleinS. B. (1994). The self as a knowledge system. In WyerR. S.SrullT. K. (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition, Vol 1, basic processes (pp. 153-208). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
86.
KircherT. T. J.SeniorC.PhillipsM. L.BensonP. J.BullmoreE. T.BrammerM.. . . DavidA. S. (2000). Towards a functional neuroanatomy of self processing: Effects of faces and words. Cognitive Brain Research, 10, 133-144.
87.
KircherT. T. J.SeniorC.PhillipsM. L.Rabe-HeskethS.BensonP. J.BullmoreE. T.. . . DavidA. S. (2001). Recognizing one’s own face. Cognition, 78, B1-B15.
88.
KleinS. B. (2001). A self to remember: A cognitive neuropsychological perspective on how self creates memory and memory creates self. In SedikidesC.BrewerM. B. (Eds.), Individual self, relational self, and collective self (pp. 25-46). Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.
89.
KleinS. B. (2004). The cognitive neuroscience of knowing one’s self. In GazzanigaM. A. (Ed.), The cognitive neurosciences III (pp. 1007-1089). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
90.
KleinS. B. (2010). The self: As a construct in psychology and neuropsychological evidence for its multiplicity. WIREs Cognitive Science, 1, 172-183.
91.
KleinS. B. (in press-a). The self and its brain. Social Cognition.
92.
KleinS. B. (in press-b). The two selves: The self of conscious experience and its brain. In LearyM. R.TangneyJ. P. (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (2nd ed.). New York: NY: Guilford.
93.
KleinS. B.CosmidesL.ToobyJ.ChanceS. (2002). Decisions and the evolution of memory: Multiple systems, multiple functions. Psychological Review, 109, 306-329.
94.
KleinS. B.GangiC. E. (2010). The multiplicity of self: Neuropsychological evidence and its implications for the self as a construct in psychological research. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1191, 1-15.
95.
KleinS. B.GermanT. P.CosmidesL.GabrielR. (2004). A theory of autobiographical memory: Necessary components and disorders resulting from their loss. Social Cognition, 22, 460-490.
96.
KleinS. B.KihlstromJ. F. (1986). Elaboration, organization, and the self-reference effect in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 115, 26-38.
97.
KleinS. B.KihlstromJ. F. (1998). On bridging the gap between social-personality psychology and neuropsychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2, 228-242.
98.
KleinS. B.LaxM. L. (2010). The unanticipated resilience of trait self-knowledge in the face of neural damage. Memory, 18, 918-948.
99.
KleinS. B.LaxM. LGangiC. E. (2010). A call for an inclusive approach to the social cognitive neurosciences. Social Cognition, 28, 747-755.
100.
KleinS. B.LaxM. L.GangiC. E. (2011). Memory and self-knowledge in young adults with ADHD. Self and Identity, 10, 213-230.
101.
KleinS. B.LoftusJ. (1988). The nature of self-referent encoding: The contributions of elaborative and organizational processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 5-11.
102.
KleinS. B.LoftusJ. (1993). The mental representation of trait and autobiographical knowledge about the self. In SrullT. K.WyerR. S. (Eds.), Advances in social cognition (Vol. 5, pp. 1-49). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
103.
KleinS. B.LoftusJ.BurtonH. A. (1989). Two selfreference effects: The importance of distinguishing between selfdescriptiveness judgments and autobiographical retrieval in selfreferent encoding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 853-865.
104.
KleinS. B.LoftusJ.KihlstromJ. F. (2002). Memory and temporal experience: The effects of episodic memory loss on an amnesic patient’s ability to remember the past and imagine the future. Social Cognition, 20, 353-379.
105.
KleinS. B.LoftusJ.TraftonR. G.FuhrmanR. W. (1992). The use of exemplars and abstractions in trait judgments: A model of trait knowledge about the self and others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 739-753.
106.
KleinS. B.NicholsS. (in press). Memory and the sense of personal identity. Mind.
107.
KleinS. B.RobertsonT. E.DeltonA. W. (2010). Facing the future: Memory as an evolved system for planning future acts. Memory & Cognition, 38, 13-22.
108.
KleinS. B.RobertsonT. E.DeltonA. W. (2011). The future-orientation of memory: Planning as a key component mediating the high levels of recall found with survival processing. Memory, 19, 121-139.
109.
KleinS. B.RobertsonT. E.GangiC. E.LoftusJ. (2008). The functional independence of trait self-knowledge: Commentary on Sakaki (2007). Memory, 16, 556-565.
110.
KruegerJ. W. (2011). The who and the how of experience. In SideritsM.ThompsonE.ZahaviD. (Eds.), Self, no self (pp. 1-26). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
111.
KuiperN. A. (1981). Convergent evidence for the self as a prototype: The “inverted-U RT effect” for self and other judgments. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7, 438-443.
112.
KuiperN. A.DerryP. A. (1982). Depressed and nondepressed content self-reference in mild depressives. Journal of Personality, 50, 67-80.
113.
KuiperN. A.RogersT. B. (1979). Encoding of personal information: Self-other differences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 499-514.
114.
LalanneJ.GrolleauP.PiolinoP. (2010). Self-reference effect and episodic memory in normal aging and Alzheimer’s disease: Myth or reality?Psychologie & Neuropsychiatrie du Vieillissement, 8, 277-294.
115.
LegrandD.RubyP. (2009). What is self-specific? Theoretical investigation and critical review of neuroimaging results. Psychological Review, 116, 252-282.
116.
LeShanL.MargenauH. (1982). Einstein’s space and Van Gogh’s sky. New York, NY: Macmillan.
117.
LewisH. D. (1986). The elusive self. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press.
118.
LindS.BowlerD. (2008). Episodic memory and autonoetic consciousness in Autistic spectrum disorders: The roles of self awareness, representational abilities and temporal cognition. In BoucherJ.BowlerD. (Eds.), Memory in autism (pp. 166-187). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
119.
LockeJ. (1731). An essay concerning human understanding. London, England: Edmund Parker. (Original work published 1690).
120.
LoizouA. (2000). Time, embodiment and the self. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
121.
LombardoM. V.BarnesJ. L.WheelwrightS. J.Baron-CohenS. (2007). Self-referential cognition and empathy in autism. PLoS One, 2(9), e883.
LordC. G. (1980). Schemas and images as memory aids: Two modes of processing social information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 257-269.
124.
LordC. G. (1987). Imagining the self and others: Reply to Brown, Keenan, and Potts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 445-450.
125.
LoweE. J. (1996). Subjects of experience. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
126.
LundD. H. (2005). The conscious self. Amherst, NY: Humanity Books.
127.
MacraeC. N.MoranJ. M.HeathertonT. F.BanfieldJ. F.KelleyW. M. (2004). Medial prefrontal activity predicts memory for self. Cerebral Cortex, 14, 647-654.
128.
MadellG. (1984). The identity of the self. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press.
129.
MakiR. H.McCaulK. D. (1985). The effects of self-reference versus other reference on the recall of traits and nouns. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 23, 169-172.
130.
MarkusH. (1977). Self-schemata and processing information about the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 63-78.
131.
MetzingerT. (2009). The ego tunnel: The science of mind and the myth of the self. New York, NY: Basic Books.
132.
MiallD. S. (1986). Emotion and the self: The context of remembering. British Journal of Psychology, 77, 389-397.
133.
MillerM. B.Van HornJ. D.WolfordG. L.HandyT. C.Valsangkar-SmythM.InatiS.. . . GazzanigaM. S. (2002). Extensive individual differences in brain activations associated with episodic retrieval are reliable over time. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14, 1200-1214.
134.
MillsC. J. (1983). Sex-typing and self-schemata effects on memory and response latency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 163-172.
135.
MischelT. (1977). The self: Psychological and philosophical issues. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell.
136.
MoscovitchM.YaschyshynT.ZieglerM.NadelL. (2000). Remote episodic memory and retrograde amnesia: Was Tulving right all along? In TulvingE. (Ed.), Memory, consciousness, and the brain: The Tallinn conference (pp. 331-345). Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.
137.
MuellerJ. H.WonderlichS.DuganK. (1986). Self-referent processing of age-specific material. Psychology and Aging, 1, 293-299.
138.
NagelT. (1974). What is it like to be a bat?Philosophical Review, 83, 435-450.
139.
NairneJ. S.ThompsonS. R.PandeiradaJ. N. S. (2007). Adaptive memory: Survival processing enhances retention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 33, 263-273.
140.
NasbyW. (1985). Private self-consciousness, articulation of the self-schema, and recognition memory for trait adjectives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 704-709.
141.
NeisserU. (1967). Cognitive psychology. New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
142.
NeisserU. (1988). Five kinds of self-knowledge. Philosophical Psychology, 1, 35-39.
143.
NoonanH. W. (1989). Personal identity (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
144.
NorthoffG.HeinzelA.de GreckM.BermpohlF.DobrowolnyH.PankseppJ. (2005). Self-referential processing in our brain—A meta-analysis of imaging studies on the self. NeuroImage, 31, 440-457.
145.
ParfitD. (1984). Reasons and persons. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
146.
ParkinA. J. (1993). Memory: Phenomena, experiment and theory. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
147.
PernerJ.RuffmanT. (1994). Episodic memory and autonoetic consciousness: Developmental evidence and a theory of childhood amnesia. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 59, 516-548.
148.
PolanyiM. (1967). The tacit dimension. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books.
149.
PressleyM.LevinJ. R.KuiperN. A.BryantS. L.MichenerS. (1982). Mnemonic versus nonmnemonic vocabulary-learning strategies: Additional comparisons. Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 693-707.
150.
PuffC. R. (Ed.). (1979). Memory organization and structure. New York, NY: Academic Press.
151.
RathboneC. J.MoulinC. J. A.ConwayM. A. (2009). Autobiographical memory and amnesia: Using conceptual knowledge to ground the self. Neurocase, 15, 405-418.
152.
ReidT. (1785). Essays on the intellectual powers of man. Edinburgh, UK: Bell & Robinson.
153.
RogersT. B. (1981). A model of the self as an aspect of the human information processing system. In CantorN.KihlstromJ. F. (Eds.), Personality, cognition and social interaction (pp. 193-214). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
154.
RogersT. B.KuiperN. A.KirkerW. S. (1977). Self-reference and the encoding of personal information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 677-688.
155.
RogersT. B.RogersP. J.KuiperN. A. (1979). Evidence for the self as a cognitive prototype: The false alarms effect. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 5, 53-56.
156.
RosenthalD. M. (1986). Two concepts of consciousness. Philosophical Studies, 49, 329-359.
157.
RubyP.ColletteF.ArgembauA. D.PetersF.DegueldreC.BalteauE.. . . SalmonE. P. (2009). Perspective taking to access self-personality: What’s modified in Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiology of Aging, 30, 1637-1651.
158.
RubyP.LegrandD. (2007). Neuroimaging the self? In RossettiY.HaggardP.KawatoM. (Eds.), Sensorimotor foundations of higher cognition (22nd Attention & Performance Meeting, pp. 293-318). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
159.
RussellB. (1992). Theory of knowledge. New York, NY: Routledge. (Original work published 1913).
160.
RussellB. (1999). The problems of philosophy. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. (Original work published 1912)
161.
RyleG. (1949). The concept of mind. New York, NY: Barnes & Noble.
162.
SamsonovichA. V.NadelL. (2005). Fundamental principles and mechanisms of the conscious self. Cortex, 41, 669-689.
163.
SchacterD. L.TulvingE. (Eds.). (1994). Memory systems 1994. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
164.
SchechtmanM. (1996). The constitution of selves. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
165.
ShoemakerS.SwinburneR. (1984). Personal identity. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell.
166.
SideritsM. (2003). Personal identity and Buddhist philosophy. Hampshire, UK: Ashgate Publishing.
167.
SideritsM.ThompsonE.ZahaviD. (2011). Self, no self?Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
168.
SlorsM. (2001). The diachronic mind: An essay on personal identity, psychological continuity and the mind-body problem. Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
169.
SorabjiR. (2006). Self: Ancient and modern insights about individuality, life, and death. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
170.
SquireL. R. (1987). Memory and brain. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
171.
SrullT. K. (1983). Organizational and retrieval processes in person memory: An examination of processing objectives, presentation format, and the possible role of self-generated retrieval cues. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 1157-1170.
172.
SternD. (1985). The interpersonal world of the infant. New York, NY: Basic Books.
173.
StrawsonG. (2009). Selves. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
174.
SuddendorfT.CorballisM. C. (1997). Mental time travel and the evolution of the human mind. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 123(2), 133-167.
175.
SuiJ.ZhuY. (2005). Five-year olds can show the self-reference advantage. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29, 382-387.
176.
SymonsC. S.JohnsonB. T. (1997). The self-reference effect in memory: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 371-394.
177.
TerraceH. S.MetcalfeJ. (Eds.). (2005). The missing link in cognition: Origins of self-reflective consciousness. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
178.
TulvingE. (1983). Elements of episodic memory. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
179.
TulvingE. (1985). Memory and consciousness. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 26, 1-12.
180.
TulvingE. (1993). What is episodic memory?Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2, 67-70.
181.
TulvingE. (1995). Organization of memory: Quo vadis? In GazzanigaM. S. (Ed.), The cognitive neurosciences (pp. 839-847). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
182.
TulvingE.PearlstoneZ. (1966). Availability versus accessibility of information in memory for words. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5, 381-391.
183.
TulvingE.SchacterD. L. (1990). Priming and human memory systems. Science, 247, 301-306.
184.
UdinL. Q.KaplanJ. T.Molnar-SzakacsI.ZaidelE.IacoboniM. (2005). Self-face recognition activates a frontoparietal “mirror” network in the right hemisphere: An event-related fMRI study. NeuroImage, 25, 926-935.
185.
UttalW. R. (2001). The new phrenology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
186.
UttalW. R. (2009). Distributed neural systems. Cormwall-on-Hudson, NY: Sloan Publishing.
187.
VelichkovskyB. M. (1999). From levels of processing to stratification of cognition: Converging evidence from three domain of research. In ChallisB. H.VelichkoskyB. M. (Eds.), Stratification in cognition and consciousness (pp. 203-226). Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
188.
VierkantT. (2003). Is the self real?London, UK: Transaction Publishers.
189.
VulE.HarrisC.WinkielmanP.PashlerH. (2009). Puzzlingly high correlations in fMRI studies of emotion, personality, and social cognition. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 274-290.
190.
WarnockM. (1987). Memory. Boston, MA: Faber and Faber.
191.
WarrenM. W.ChattinD.ThompsonD. D.TomskyM. T. (1983). The effects of autobiographical elaboration on noun recall. Memory & Cognition, 11, 445-455.
192.
WheelerM. A.StussD. T.TulvingE. (1997). Toward a theory of episodic memory: The frontal lobes and autonoetic consciousness. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 331-354.
193.
WhiteS. L. (1991). The unity of the self. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
194.
WuY.WangC.HeX.MaoL.ZhangL. (2010). Religious beliefs influence neural substrates of self-reflection in Tibetans. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 5, 324-331.
195.
YoungO. C. D.MartinM. (1981). Processing of information about self by neurotics. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 20, 205-212.
196.
ZahaviD. (2005). Subjectivity of selfhood: Investigating the first-person perspective. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
197.
ZajoncR. B. (1980). Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences. American Psychologist, 35, 151-175.
198.
ZhangL.ZhouT.ZhangJ.LiuZ.FanJ.ZhuY. (2006). In search of the Chinese self: An fMRI study. Science in China: Series C Life Sciences, 49, 89-96.
199.
ZhuY.ZhangL.FanJ.HanS. (2007). Neural basis of cultural influence on self-representation. NeuroImage, 34, 1310-1316.
