Individual differences in religiousness can be partly explained as a cultural adaptation of two basic personality traits,Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. This argument is supported by a meta-analysis of 71 samples (N = 21,715) from 19 countries and a review of the literature on personality and religion. Beyond variations in effect magnitude as a function of moderators, the main personality characteristics of religiousness (Agreeableness and Conscientiousness) are consistent across different religious dimensions, contexts (gender, age, cohort, and country), and personality measures, models, and levels, and they seem to predict religiousness rather than be influenced by it. The copresence of Agreeableness and Conscientiousness sheds light on other explanations of religiousness, its distinctiveness from related constructs, its implications for other domains, and its adaptive functions.
References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the meta-analysis.
2.
Aarnio, K., & Lindeman, M. ( 2007). Religious people and paranormal believers: Alike or different ? Journal of Individual Differences, 28, 1-9.
3.
*Adamovová, L. ( 2006). Náboženský fundamentalizmusz pohľadu kognitívnych a osobnostných charakteristík [Religious fundamentalism from the scope of cognitive and personality characteristics] . In P. Halama, L. Adamovová, M. Hatoková , & M. Stríženec (Eds.), Religiozita, spiritualita a osobnosť (pp. 55-104). Bratislava , Slovakia: Slovak Academy of Sciences, Institute of Experimental Psychology.
4.
*Adamovová, L., & Stríženec, M. (2004). Personality-structural correlates of cognitive orientation to spirituality. Studia Psychologica, 46, 317-325.
5.
*Aguilar-Vafaie, M.E., & Moghanloo, M. ( 2008). Domain and facet personality correlates of religiosity among Iranian college students. Mental Health, Religion and Culture, 11, 461-483.
6.
Altemeyer, B., & Hunsberger, B. (2005). Fundamentalism and authoritarianism . In R. F. Paloutzian & C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 378-393). New York: Guilford.
7.
Art, J., & De Fruyt, F. ( 2001). Psychological history: Towards a profile of the beatified Catholic. Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Nieuwste Geschiedenis , 31, 5-25.
8.
Ashton, M.C. ( 2007). Individual differences and personality. New York: Academic Press.
9.
*Barron, J.M., Struckman-Johnson, C., Quevillon, R., & Banka, S.R. ( 2008). Heterosexual men’s attitudes toward gay men: A hierarchical model including masculinity, openness, and theoretical explanations . Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 9, 154-166.
10.
Batson, C.D., Anderson, S.L., & Collins, E. ( 2005). Personal religion and prosocial motivation. In M. L. Maher & S. A. Karabenick (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement: Motivation and religion (Vol. 14, pp. 151-185). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
11.
Batson, C.D., Denton, D.M., & Vollemecke, J.T. (2008). Quest religion, anti-fundamentalism, and limited versus universal compassion. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 47, 135-145.
12.
*Billard, A., Greer, J.M., Merrick, M.E., Sneck, W., & Scheers, N.J. ( 2005). Relationships between spiritual transcendence and emotional intelligence among older Catholic nuns. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 16, 41-61.
13.
Blackwell, D.L., & Lichter, D.T. ( 2004). Homogamy among dating, cohabiting, and married couples . Sociological Quarterly, 45, 719-737.
14.
*Braam, A.W., Mooi, B., Jonker, J.S., van Tilburg, W., & Deeg, D.J.H. ( 2008). God image and five-factor model personality characteristics in later life: A study among inhabitants of Sassenheim in the Netherlands . Mental Health, Religion and Culture, 11, 547-559.
15.
Cawley, M.J., III, Martin, J.E., & Johnson, J.A. ( 2000). A virtue approach to personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 28, 997-1013.
16.
*Chen , M.C. ( 1996). Psychological correlates of prosocial behavior among college students in Taiwan. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Loyola College in Maryland.
17.
*Chen, S.X., Fok, H.K., Bond, M.H., & Matsumoto, D. ( 2006). Personality and beliefs about the world revisited: Expanding the nomological network of social axioms. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 201-211.
18.
*Ciarrocchi, J.W., & Deneke, E. ( 2004). Happiness and the varieties of religious experience: Religious support, practices, and spirituality as predictors of well-being . Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 15, 209-233.
19.
*Ciarrocchi, J.W., Dy-Liacco, G.S., & Deneke, E. ( 2008). Gods or rituals? Relational faith, spiritual discontent, and religious practices as predictors of hope and optimism. Journal of Positive Psychology, 3, 120-136.
20.
*Ciarrocchi, J.W., Piedmont, R.L., & Williams, J.E.G. (2002). Image of God and personality as predictors of spirituality in men and women. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 13, 55-73.
21.
Cohen, A.B., Hall, D.E., Koenig, H.G., & Meador, K.G. ( 2005). Social versus individual motivation: Implications for normative definitions of religious orientation. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9, 48-61.
22.
Cohen, A.B., & Rozin, P. ( 2001). Religion and the morality of mentality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 697-710.
23.
*Costa, P.T., Jr., Busch, C.M., Zonderman, A.B., & McCrae, R.R. (1986). Correlations of MMPI factor scales with measures of the five factor model of personality. Journal of Personality Assessment, 50, 640-650.
Costa, P.T., Jr., & McCrae, R.R. (2008). The Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R). In G. J. Boyle, G. Matthews, & D. H. Saklofske (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of personality theory and assessment. Vol. 2: Personality measurement and testing (pp. 179-198). London: Sage.
26.
*Cramer, R.J., Griffin, M.P., & Powers, D.V. ( 2008). A five-factor analysis of spirituality in young adults: Preliminary evidence. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 19, 43-58.
27.
Dalbert, C., Lipkus, I.M., Sallay, H., & Goch, I. ( 2001). A just and an unjust world: Structure and validity of different world beliefs. Personality and Individual Differences , 30, 561-577.
28.
Demoulin, S., Saroglou, V., & Van Pachterbeke, M. (2008). Infra-humanizing others, supra-humanizing gods: The emotional hierarchy. Social Cognition , 26, 235-247.
29.
*Duriez, B., & Soenens, B. ( 2006). Personality, identity styles and religiosity: An integrative study among late and middle adolescents. Journal of Adolescence , 29, 119-135.
30.
*Duriez, B., Soenens, B., & Beyers, W. ( 2004). Personality, identity styles and religiosity: An integrative study among late adolescents in Flanders (Belgium). Journal of Personality, 72, 877-910.
31.
Duval, S. ( 2005). The trim and fill method. In H. R. Rothstein, A. J. Sutton, & M. Robenstein (Eds.), Publication bias in meta-analysis: Prevention, assessment and adjustments (pp. 127-144). New York: John Wiley.
32.
Duval, S., & Tweedie, R. ( 2000). A non-parametric "trim and fill" method of accounting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 95, 89-98.
33.
*Dy-Liacco, G.S., Piedmont, R.L., Murray-Swank, N.A., Rodgerson, T.E., & Sherman, M.F. ( 2009). Spirituality and religiosity as cross-cultural aspects of human experience. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality , 1, 35-52.
34.
Emmons, R.A., Barrett, J.L., & Schnitker, S.A. (2008). Personality and the capacity for religious and spiritual experience. In O. P. John, R. W. Robins, & L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 634-653). New York: Guilford.
35.
Feist, G.J. ( 1998). A meta-analysis of personality in scientific and artistic creativity. Personality and Social Psychology Review , 2, 290-309.
36.
Fowler, J.W. ( 1981). Stages of faith: The psychology of human development and the quest for meaning. New York: Harper & Row.
37.
Francis, L.J. ( 1992). Religion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. In J. F. Schumaker (Ed.), Religion and mental health (pp. 149-160). New York: Oxford University Press.
38.
Francis, L.J. ( 2007). Faith and psychology: The contribution of empirical research and Jungian psychological type theory to practical and pastoral theology . Psychology of Religion Newsletter: American Psychological Association Division36, 32, 1-10.
39.
Francis, L.J. ( 2009). Comparative empirical research in religion: Conceptual and operational challenges within empirical theology. In L. J. Francis, M. Robbins , & J. Astley (Eds.), Empirical theology in texts and tables (pp. 127-152). Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.
40.
*Francis, L.J., Hills, P.R., Schludermann, E., & Schludermann, S. (2008). Religion, psychological well-being, and personality: A study among undergraduate students in Canada . Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 19, 1-16.
41.
Francis, L.J., & Jones, S.H. ( 1997). Personality and charismatic experience among adult Christians . Pastoral Psychology, 45, 421-428.
42.
Francis, L.J., & Katz, Y.J. ( 1992). The relationship between personality and religiosity in an Israeli sample. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 31, 153-162.
43.
*Froehlich, J.P., Fialkowski, G.M., Scheers, N.J., Wilcox, P.C., & Lawrence, R.T. (2006). Spiritual maturity and social support in a national study of a male religious order. Pastoral Psychology, 54, 465-478.
44.
Furnham, A., & Proctor, E. ( 1989). Belief in a just world: Review and critique of the individual difference literature. British Journal of Social Psychology , 28, 365-384.
45.
*Galea, M., Ciarrocchi, J.W., Piedmont, R.L., & Wicks, R.J. ( 2007). Child abuse, personality, and spirituality as predictors of happiness in Maltese college students. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 18, 141-154.
46.
Galek, K., Krause, N., Ellison, C.G., Kudler, T., & Flannelly, K.J. (2007). Religious doubt and mental health across the lifespan. Journal of Adult Development, 14, 16-25.
47.
*Geary, B., Ciarrocchi, J.W., & Scheers, N.J. ( 2004). Spirituality and religious variables as predictors of well-being in sex offenders. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 15, 167-188.
48.
*Ghorbani, N., Watson, P.J., & Mirhasani, V.S. (2007). Religious commitment in Iran: Correlates and factors of quest and extrinsic religious orientations . Archive for the Psychology of Religion, 29, 245-257.
49.
Ghorpade, J., Lackritz, J., & Singh, G. ( 2006). Correlates of the Protestant ethic of hard work: Results from a diverse ethnoreligious sample. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36, 2449-2473.
50.
Goldberg, L.R. ( 1999). A broad-bandwidth, public-domain, personality inventory measuring the lower-level facets of several five-factor models. In I. Mervielde, I. Deary , F. De Fruyt, & F. Ostendorf (Eds.), Personality psychology in Europe, Vol. 7 (pp. 7 -28). Tilburg, Netherlands: Tilburg University Press.
51.
Goldberg, L.R., & Rosolack, T.K. (1992). The big-five factor structure as an integrative framework: An empirical comparison with Eysenck’s P-E-N model. In C. F. Halverson, G. A. Kohnstamm, & R. P. Martin (Eds.), The developing structure of temperament and personality from infancy to adulthood (pp. 7-35). Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum.
52.
Graham, J., & Haidt, J. ( 2010). Beyond beliefs: Religions bind individuals into moral communities. Personality and Social Psychology Review , 14, 140-150.
53.
Granqvist, P., Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. ( 2010). Religion as attachment: Normative processes and individual differences. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14, 49-59.
54.
Haidt, J., & Graham, J. ( 2007). When morality opposes justice: Conservatives have moral intuitions that liberals may not recognize. Social Justice Research, 20, 98-116.
55.
Hall, D.L., Matz, D.C., & Wood, W. ( 2010). Why don’t we practice what we preach? A meta-analytic review of religious racism. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14, 126-139.
56.
*Heaven, P.C.L., & Ciarrocchi, J. (2007). Personality and religious values among adolescents: A three-wave longitudinal analysis. British Journal of Psychology, 98, 681-694.
57.
*Henningsgaard, J.M., & Arnau, R.C. ( 2008). Relationships between religiosity, spirituality, and personality: A multivariate analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 45, 703-708.
58.
Hills, P., Francis, L.J., Argyle, M., & Jackson, C.J. ( 2004). Primary personality trait correlates of religious practice and orientation. Personality and Individual Differences , 36, 61-73.
59.
Hogg, M.A., Adelman, J.R., & Blagg, R.D. ( 2010). Religion in the face of uncertainty: Uncertainty-identity theory of religiousness and religious extremism. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14, 72-83.
60.
Hood, R.W., Jr., Hill, P.C., & Gorsuch, R. ( 2009). The psychology of religion: An empirical approach (4th ed.). New York: Guilford.
61.
Hunsberger, B., & Jackson, L.M. ( 2005). Religion, meaning, and prejudice. Journal of Social Issues, 61, 807-826.
62.
Jeynes, W. ( 2004). Comparing the influence of religion on education in the United States and overseas: A meta-analysis. Religion and Education, 31, 1-15.
63.
John, O.P., Nauman, L.P., & Soto, C.J. ( 2008). Paradigm shift to the integrative big five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and conceptual issues. In O. P. John, R. W. Robins, & L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 114-158). New York: Guilford .
64.
King, L.A., Walker, L.M., & Broyles, S.J. ( 1996). Creativity and the five-factor model. Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 189-203. Kirkpatrick, L.A. ( 2005). Attachment, evolution, and the psychology of religion . New York: Guilford.
65.
Koenig, L.B., McGue, M., Krueger, R.F., & Bouchard, T.J. , Jr. (2005). Genetic and environmental influences on religiousness: Findings for retrospective and current religiousness ratings. Journal of Personality, 73, 471-488.
66.
*Kosek, R.B. ( 1999). Adaptation of the big five as a hermeneutic instrument for religious constructs. Personality and Individual Differences , 27, 229-237.
67.
*Koutsos, P., Wertheim, E.H., & Kornblum, J. ( 2008). Paths to interpersonal forgiveness: The roles of personality, disposition to forgive and contextual factors in predicting forgiveness following a specific offence. Personality and Individual Differences , 44, 337-348.
68.
Krause, N., & Wulff, K.M. ( 2005). Church-based social ties, a sense of belonging in a congregation, and physical health status. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 15, 73-93.
69.
*Krauss, S.W., Streib, H., Keller, B., & Silver, C. ( 2006). The distinction between authoritarianism and fundamentalism in three cultures: Factor analysis and personality correlates. Archive for the Psychology of Religion, 28, 341-348.
70.
*Landis, S.K., Sherman, M.F., Piedmont, R.L., Kirkhart, M.W., Rapp, E.M., & Bike, D.H. ( 2009). The relation between elevation and self-reported prosocial behavior: Incremental validity over the five-factor model of personality . Journal of Positive Psychology, 4, 71-84.
71.
Leach, M.M., Piedmont, R.L., & Monteiro, D. ( 2001). Images of God among Christians, Hindus, and Muslims in India. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion , 12, 207-225.
72.
*Leak, G.K., & Fish, S.B. ( 1999). Development and initial validation of a measure of religious maturity. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion , 9, 83-103.
73.
*Leak, G.K., Loucks, A.A., & Bowlin, P. ( 1999). Development and initial validation of an objective measure of faith development. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 9, 105-124.
74.
Lee, K., Ogunfowora, B., & Ashton, M.C. (2005). Personality traits beyond the big five: Are they within the HEXACO space? Journal of Personality, 73, 1437-1463.
75.
Leung, K., & Bond, M.H. ( 2004). Social axioms: A model for social beliefs in multi-cultural perspective. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 36, pp. 119-197). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
76.
Lewis, C.A. ( 1999). Is the relationship between religiosity and personality "contaminated" by social desirability as assessed by the Lie Scale? A methodological reply to Michael W. Eysenck (1998). Mental Health, Religion and Culture, 2, 105-114.
77.
Lewis, C.A. ( 2000). The religiosity-psychoticism relationship and the two factors of social desirability: A response to Michael W. Eysenck (1999) . Mental Health, Religion and Culture, 3, 39-45.
Lodi-Smith, J., & Roberts, B.W. ( 2007). Social investment and personality: A meta-analysis of the relationships of personality traits to investment in work, family, religion, and volunteerism. Personality and Social Psychology Review , 11, 68-86.
80.
*MacDonald, D.A. ( 2000). Spirituality: Description, measurement, and relation to the five factor model of personality. Journal of Personality , 68, 153-197.
81.
Matsuba, M.K., & Walker, L.J. ( 2004). Extraordinary moral commitment: Young adults involved in social organizations. Journal of Personality, 72, 413-436.
82.
McCrae, R.R., & Costa, P.T., Jr. (2003). Personality in adulthood: A five-factor theory perspective (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.
83.
McCrae, R.R., & Costa, P.T., Jr. (2008). The five-factor theory of personality . In O. P. John, R. W. Robins, & L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 159-181). New York: Guilford.
84.
McCrae, R.R., & John, O.P. ( 1992). An introduction to the five-factor model and its applications . Journal of Personality, 60, 175-215.
85.
McCullough, M.E., Enders, C.K., Brion, S.L., & Jain, A.R. ( 2005). The varieties of religious development in adulthood: A longitudinal investigation of religion and rational choice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 78-89.
86.
*McCullough, M.E., & Laurenceau, J.-P. (2005). Religiousness and the trajectory of self-rated health across adulthood. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 1-14.
87.
McCullough, M.E., Tsang, J.-A., & Brion, S. ( 2003). Personality traits in adolescence as predictors of religiousness in early adulthood: Findings from the Terman Longitudinal Study. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 980-991.
88.
*McCullough, M.E., & Willoughby, B.L.B. (2009). Religion, self-regulation, and self-control: Associations, explanations, and implications. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 69-93.
89.
*Mendonca, D., Oakes, K.E., Ciarrocchi, J.W., Sneck, W.J., & Gillespie, K. ( 2007). Spirituality and God-attachment as predictors of subjective well-being for seminarians and nuns in India. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 18, 121-140.
90.
*Murray, K.M., Ciarrocchi, J.W., & Murray-Swank, N.A. (2007). Spirituality, religiosity, shame and guilt as predictors of sexual attitudes and experiences. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 35, 222-234.
91.
Norenzayan, A., & Shariff, A.F. ( 2008). The origin and evolution of religious prosociality . Science, 322, 58-62.
92.
Paloutzian, R.F., Richardson, J.T., & Rambo, L.R. ( 1999). Religious conversion and personality change. Journal of Personality, 67, 1047-1079.
93.
Park, C.L. ( 2005). Religion and meaning. In R. F. Paloutzian & C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 295-314). New York: Guilford.
94.
Paulhus, D.L., & Vazire, S. ( 2007). The self-report method. In R. W. Robins, R. C. Fraley, & R. F. Krueger (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in personality psychology (pp. 224-239). New York: Guilford.
95.
*Paunonen, S.V. ( 1998). Hierarchical organization of personality and prediction of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 74, 538-556.
96.
*Paunonen, S.V., & Ashton, M.C. ( 2001). Big five factors and facets and the predictions of behavior . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 81, 524-539.
97.
*Paunonen, S.V., Haddock, G., Forsterling, F., & Keinonen, M. ( 2003). Broad versus narrow personality measures and the prediction of behavior across cultures. European Journal of Personality , 17, 413-433.
98.
Paunonen, S.V., & Jackson, D.N. ( 2000). What is beyond the big five? Plenty!Journal of Personality, 68, 821-835.
99.
Pichon, I. ( 2002). Perceptions stéréotypiques des croyants et des non-croyants [Stereotypical perceptions of believers and nonbelievers] . Unpublished master’s thesis, Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium.
100.
*Piedmont, R.L. ( 1996). Strategies for using the five-factor model in religious research. In R. Piedmont (Chair), The five-factor model and its value for religious research. Symposium conducted in August, 1996, at the annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada.
101.
*Piedmont, R.L. ( 1999a). Does spirituality represent the sixth factor of personality? Spiritual transcendence and the five-factor model. Journal of Personality, 67, 985-1013.
102.
*Piedmont, R.L. ( 1999b). Strategies for using the five-factor model of personality in religious research. Journal of Psychology and Theology , 27, 338-350.
103.
*Piedmont, R.L. ( 2001). Spiritual transcendence and the scientific study of spirituality . Journal of Rehabilitation, 67, 4-14.
104.
Piedmont, R.L. ( 2005). The role of personality in understanding religious and spiritual constructs. In R. F. Paloutzian & C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 253-273). New York: Guilford.
105.
*Piedmont, R.L., Mapa, A.T., & Williams, J.E.G. (2006). A factor analysis of the Fetzer/NIA brief multidimensional measure of religiousness/spirituality (MMMRS) . Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion , 17, 177-196.
106.
*Piedmont, R.L., & Nelson, R. ( 2001). A psychometric evaluation of the short form of the Faith Maturity Scale. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 12, 165-184.
107.
Regnerus, M. ( 2007). Forbidden fruit: Sex and religion in the lives of American teenagers. New York: Oxford University Press.
108.
Rentfrow, P.J., Gosling, S.D., & Potter, J. ( 2008). A theory of the emergence, persistence, and expression of geographic variation in psychological characteristics. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 339-369.
109.
Rhodewalt, F. (Ed.). (2008). Personality and social behavior. New York: Psychology Press.
110.
*Roccas, S., Sagiv, L., Schwartz, S.H., & Knafo, A. ( 2002). The big five personality factors and personal values . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 789-801.
111.
*Rowatt, W.C., & Kirkpatrick, L.A. (2002). Two dimensions of attachment to God and their relation to affect, personality, and religiosity constructs . Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 41, 637-651.
112.
*Rowatt, W.C., & Schmitt, D. ( 2003). Associations between religious orientation and varieties of sexual experience. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 42, 455-465.
113.
Ruiter, S., & De Graaf, N.D. (2006). National context, religiosity, and volunteering: Results from 53 countries. American Sociological Review, 71, 191-210.
114.
*Saroglou, V. ( 2001). La religion des jeunes et leur personnalité: Etudes récentes en Belgique francophone [Religion of young people and their personality: Recent studies in Belgium]. In V. Saroglou & D. Hutsebaut (Eds.), Religion et développement humain: Questions psychologiques (pp. 115-140). Paris: L’Harmattan.
115.
Saroglou, V. ( 2002a). Beyond dogmatism: The need for closure as related to religion. Mental Health, Religion and Culture, 5, 183-194.
116.
Saroglou, V. ( 2002b). Religion and the five factors of personality: A meta-analytic review. Personality and Individual Differences , 32, 15-25.
117.
Saroglou, V. ( 2004). Being religious implies being different in humour: Evidence from self- and peer-ratings. Mental Health, Religion and Culture , 7, 255-267.
118.
Saroglou, V., & Anciaux, L. ( 2004). Liking sick humor: Coping styles and religion as predictors . Humor: International Journal of Humor Research , 17, 257-277.
119.
Saroglou, V., Buxant, C., & Tilquin, J. ( 2008). Positive emotions as leading to religion and spirituality . Journal of Positive Psychology, 3, 165-173.
120.
Saroglou, V., Delpierre, V., & Dernelle, R. ( 2004). Values and religiosity: A meta-analysis of studies using Schwartz’s model. Personality and Individual Differences , 37, 721-734.
121.
*Saroglou, V., & Dupuis, J. ( 2006). Being Buddhist in Western Europe: Cognitive needs, prosocial character, and values. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 16, 163-179.
122.
*Saroglou, V., & Fiasse, L. ( 2003). Birth order, personality, and religion: A study among young adults from a three-sibling family. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 19-29.
123.
Saroglou, V., & Jaspard, J.-M. (2001). Does religion affect humour creation? An experimental study. Mental Health, Religion and Culture, 4, 33-46.
124.
*Saroglou, V., & Muñoz-García, A. (2008). Individual differences in religion and spirituality: An issue of personality traits and/or values . Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 47, 83-101.
125.
Saroglou, V., Pichon, I., Trompette, L., Verschueren, M., & Dernelle, R. ( 2005). Prosocial behavior and religion: New evidence based on projective measures and peer ratings. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 44, 323-348.
126.
Saroglou, V., Yzerbyt, V., & Kaschten, C. ( 2009). Believers, non-believers, and reciprocal meta-stereotypes . Manuscript in preparation.
127.
Saucier, G. ( 1994). Mini-markers: A brief version of Goldberg’s unipolar Big Five markers. Journal of Personality Assessment , 63, 506-516.
128.
*Saucier, G. ( 2000). Isms and the structure of social attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 366-385.
129.
*Saucier, G., & Goldberg, L.R. (1998). What is beyond the big-five ? Journal of Personality, 66, 495-524.
130.
*Saucier, G., & Skrzypińska, K. (2006). Spiritual but not religious? Evidence for two independent dispositions. Journal of Personality , 74, 1257-1292.
131.
Schlenker, B.R., Weigold, M.F., & Schlenker, K. ( 2008). What makes a hero? The impact of integrity on admiration and interpersonal judgment. Journal of Personality , 76, 323-355.
132.
Sedikides, C., & Gebauer, J.E. ( 2010). Religiosity as self-enhancement: A meta-analysis of the relation between socially desirable responding and religiosity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14, 17-36.
133.
Shariff, A.F., & Norenzayan, A. (2007). God is watching you: Priming God concepts increases prosocial behavior in an anonymous economic game. Psychological Science, 18, 803-809.
134.
Sheldon, K.M. ( 2006). Catholic guilt? Comparing Catholics’ and Protestants’ religious motivations. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 16, 209-223.
135.
Sibley, C.G., & Duckitt, J. ( 2008). Personality and prejudice: A meta-analysis and theoretical review. Personality and Social Psychology Review , 12, 248-279.
136.
*Simpson, D.B., Newman, J.L., & Fuqua, D.R. ( 2007). Spirituality and personality: Accumulating evidence . Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 26, 33-44.
137.
Sterne, J.A.C., Becker, B.J., & Egger, M. ( 2005). The funnel plot. In H. R. Rothstein, A. J. Sutton, & M. Robenstein (Eds.), Publication bias in meta-analysis: Prevention, assessment and adjustments (pp. 75-99). New York: John Wiley.
138.
Streib, H., Keller, B., Csöff, R., & Silver, C.F. ( 2009). Deconversion: Qualitative and quantitative results from cross-cultural research in Germany and the United States of America. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht .
139.
*Streyffeler, L.L., & McNally, R.J. ( 1998). Fundamentalists and liberals: Personality characteristics of Protestant Christians. Personality and Individual Differences , 24, 579-580.
140.
*Taylor, A., & MacDonald, D.A. (1999). Religion and the five factor model of personality: An exploratory investigation using a Canadian university sample. Personality and Individual Differences , 27, 1243-1259.
141.
Thompson, E.H., Jr. (1991). Beneath the status characteristic: Gender variations in religiousness. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 30, 381-394.
142.
*Tkach, C., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2006). How do people pursue happiness? Relating personality, happiness-increasing strategies, and well-being . Journal of Happiness Studies, 7, 183-225.
143.
Trimble, D.E. ( 1997). The Religious Orientation scale: Review and meta-analysis of social desirability effects. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 57, 970-986.
144.
*Van Cappellen, P., & Saroglou, V. ( 2009). [Individual versus self-transcendent joy and impact on religion and spirituality: An Internet study]. Unpublished data.
145.
*Walker, D.F., & Gorsuch, R.L. ( 2002). Forgiveness within the big five personality model . Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 1127-1138.
146.
*Walsh, J.M., Ciarrocchi, J.W., Piedmont, R., & Haskins, D. ( 2007). Spiritual transcendence and religious practices in recovery from pathological gambling: Reducing pain or enhancing quality of life? Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion , 18, 155-175.
147.
Watson, D., & Clark, L.A. ( 1997). Extraversion and its positive emotional core. In R. Hogan, J. Johnson, & S. Briggs (Eds.), Handbook of personality psychology (pp. 763-793). New York: Academic Press.
148.
*Weeden, J., Cohen, A.B., & Kenrick, D.T. ( 2008). Religious participation and reproductive strategies . Evolution and Human Behavior, 29, 327-334.
149.
Whiteside, S.P., & Lynam, D.R. ( 2001). The five factor model and impulsivity: Using a structural model of personality to understand impulsivity. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 669-689.
150.
Wilde, A., & Joseph, S. ( 1997). Religiosity and personality in a Moslem context . Personality and Individual Differences, 23, 899-900.
151.
*Wilson, J.T., & Boden, J.M. ( 2008). The effects of personality, social support and religiosity on posttraumatic growth. Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies, 12. Retrieved February 8, 2009. from http://www.massey.ac.nz/~trauma/issues/2008-1/wilson.htm
152.
*Wink, P., Ciciolla, L., Dillon, M., & Tracy, A. ( 2007). Religiousness, spiritual seeking, and personality: Findings from a longitudinal study. Journal of Personality , 75, 1051-1070.
153.
Wink, P., Dillon, M., & Prettyman, A. ( 2007). Religiousness, spiritual seeking, and authoritarianism: Findings from a longitudinal study. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 46, 321-345.
154.
Zinnbauer, B.J., & Pargament, K.I. (2005). Religiousness and spirituality . In R. F. Paloutzian & C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 21-42). New York: Guilford.
