School Challenges and Services Related to Executive Functioning for Fully Included Middle Schoolers With Autism

Abstract

The educational services available for fully included middle schoolers with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in the general education setting in the United States are not well known. Even less is known about how the executive functioning (EF) deficits of such youth are addressed in the classroom. The current study sought to identify the challenges, including EF, that middle schoolers with ASD face, determine the services that they receive on their Individualized Education Program (IEP), and also explore specific strategies used to build EF skills at school. A convenience data sample was obtained from focus groups with educational personnel (n = 15), and qualitative analyses of IEPs were conducted in middle schoolers with ASD with EF deficits (n = 23). Results confirmed that social communication and EF challenges are common. Multiple services and accommodations were identified, although EF challenges were rarely targeted on IEPs. Factors that may facilitate the success of EF strategies in the classroom are discussed.

Keywords

IEP special education autism spectrum disorder middle school

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Adreon

Durocher

(2007). Evaluating the college transition needs of individuals with high-functioning Autism Spectrum Disorders. Intervention in School and Clinic, 42(5), 271–279. https://doi.org/10.1177/10534512070420050201

Akshoomoff

(2005). The neuropsychology of autistic spectrum disorders. Developmental Neuropsychology, 27(3), 307–310. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2703_1

Antshel

K. M.

Russo

(2019). Autism spectrum disorders and ADHD: Overlapping phenomenology, diagnostic issues, and treatment considerations. Current Psychiatry Reports, 21(5), 34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-019-1020-5

Azad

G. F.

Kim

Marcus

S. C.

Mandell

D. S.

Sheridan

S. M.

(2016). Parent-teacher communication about children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: An examination of collaborative problem-solving. Psychology in the Schools, 53(10), 1071–1084. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21976

Batsche

(2014). Multi-tiered system of supports for inclusive schools. In McLeskey

Waldron

N. L.

Spooner

Algozzin

(Eds.), Handbook of effective inclusive schools (pp. 193–206). Routledge.

Blacher

Howell

Lauderdale-Littin

Reed

F. D. D.

Laugeson

E. A.

(2014). Autism spectrum disorder and the student teacher relationship: A comparison study with peers with intellectual disability and typical development. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 8(3), 324–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2013.12.008

Blair

Razza

R. P.

(2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development, 78(2), 647–663. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01019.x

Bolourian

Stavropoulos

K. K.

Blacher

(2019). Autism in the classroom: Educational issues across the lifespan. In Fitzgerald

(Ed.), Autism spectrum disorders-Advances at the end of the second decade of the 21st century. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84790

Cannon

Kenworthy

Alexander

K. C.

Werner

M. A.

Anthony

L. G.

(2011). Unstuck and on target!: An executive function curriculum to improve flexibility for children with autism spectrum disorders. Paul H. Brookes.

10.

Carter

E. W.

Bottema-Beutel

Brock

M. E.

(2014). Social interactions and friendships. In Agran

Brown

Hughes

Quirk

Ryndak

(Eds.), Equity and full participation for individuals with severe disabilities: A vision for the future (pp. 197–216). Paul H. Brookes.

11.

Carter

E. W.

Common

E. A.

Sreckovic

M. A.

Huber

H. B.

Bottema-Beutel

Redding Gustafson

Dykstra

Hume

(2013). Promoting social competence and peer relationships for adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Remedial and Special Education, 35(2), 91–101. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932513514618

12.

DePaoli

J. L.

Hornig Fox

Ingram

E. S.

Maushard

Bridgeland

J. M.

Blalfanz

R. R. f.

(2015). Building a grad nation: Progress and challenge in ending the high school dropout epidemic. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED556759

13.

Engel de Abreu

P. M.

Abreu

Nikaedo

C. C.

Puglisi

M. L.

Tourinho

C. J.

Miranda

M. C.

Martin

(2014). Executive functioning and reading achievement in school: A study of Brazilian children assessed by their teachers as “poor readers.” Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 550. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00550

14.

Espy

K. A.

McDiarmid

M. M.

Cwik

M. F.

Stalets

M. M.

Hamby

Senn

T. E.

(2004). The contribution of executive functions to emergent mathematic skills in preschool children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 26(1), 465–486. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2601_6

15.

Estes

Rivera

Bryan

Cali

Dawson

(2011). Discrepancies between academic achievement and intellectual ability in higher-functioning school-aged children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 41(8), 1044–1052. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1127-3

16.

Etscheidt

(2006). Least restrictive and natural environments for young children with disabilities: A legal analysis of issues. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 26(3), 167–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/02711214060260030401

17.

Evans

Borriello

G. A.

Field

A. P.

(2018). A review of the academic and psychological impact of the transition to secondary education. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1482. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01482

18.

Fleury

V. P.

Hedges

Hume

Browder

D. M.

Thompson

J. L.

Fallin

El Zein

Reutebuch

C. K.

Vaughn

(2014). Addressing the academic needs of adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder in secondary education. Remedial and Special Education, 35(2), 68–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932513518823

19.

Gioia

G. A.

Isquith

P. K.

Guy

S. C.

Kenworthy

(2015). Behavior rating inventory of executive function, 2nd ed.: Professional manual. Psychological Assessment Resources.

20.

Hill

E. L.

Bird

C. M.

(2006). Executive processes in Asperger syndrome: Patterns of performance in a multiple case series. Neuropsychologia, 44(14), 2822–2835. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.06.007

21.

Hsieh

H. F.

Shannon

S. E.

(2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277–1288. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687

22.

Hume

Loftin

Lantz

(2009). Increasing independence in autism spectrum disorders: A review of three focused interventions. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 39(9), 1329–1338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0751-2

23.

Institute of Education Sciences. (2021). Characteristics of public school teachers. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/pdf/2021/clr_508c.pdf

24.

Jacobson

L. A.

Williford

A. P.

Pianta

R. C.

(2011). The role of executive function in children’s competent adjustment to middle school. Child Neuropsychology, 17(3), 255–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2010.535654

25.

Kaufman

A. S.

Kaufman

N. L.

(2004). Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (2nd ed.). AGS.

26.

Kenworthy

Black

D. O.

Harrison

della Rosa

Wallace

G. L.

(2009). Are executive control functions related to autism symptoms in high-functioning children? Child Neuropsychology, 15(5), 425–440. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297040802646983

27.

Kenworthy

Black

D. O.

Wallace

G. L.

Ahluvalia

Wagner

A. E.

Sirian

L. M.

(2005). Disorganization: The forgotten executive dysfunction in high-functioning autism (HFA) spectrum disorders. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28(3), 809–827. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2803_4

28.

Klin

Danovitch

J. H.

Merz

A. B.

Volkmar

F. R.

(2007). Circumscribed interests in higher functioning individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders: An exploratory study. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 32(2), 89–100. https://doi.org/10.2511/rpsd.32.2.89

29.

Kurth

Mastergeorge

A. M.

(2009). Individual education plan goals and services for adolescents with Autism: Impact of age and educational setting. Journal of Special Education, 44(3), 146–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466908329825

30.

Lord

Rutter

DiLavore

P. C.

Risi

Gotham

Bishop

S. L.

(2012). Autism diagnostic observation schedule, 2nd ed. (ADOS-2): Modules 1-4. Western Psychological Services.

31.

Mullins

E. R.

Irvin

J. L.

(2000). Transition into middle school: What research says. Middle School Journal, 31(3), 57–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/00940771.2000.11494629

32.

Odom

S. L.

Cox

A. W.

Brock

M. E.

, & National Professional Development Center On ASD. (2013). Implementation science, professional development, and Autism Spectrum Disorders. Exceptional Children, 79(3), 233–251. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440291307900207

33.

Odom

S. L.

Hall

L. J.

Morin

K. L.

Kraemer

B. R.

Hume

K. A.

McIntyre

N. S.

Nowell

S. W.

Steinbrenner

J. R.

Tomaszewski

Sam

A. M.

DaWalt

(2021). Educational interventions for children and youth with Autism: A 40-year perspective. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 51, 4354–4369. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-04990-1

34.

Ozonoff

Schetter

P. L.

(2007). Executive dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders: From research to practice. In Meltzer

(Ed.), Understanding executive function: Implications and opportunities for the classroom (pp. 133–160). Guilford.

35.

Pennington

B. F.

Ozonoff

(1996). Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 37(1), 51–87. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1996.tb01380.x

36.

Schall

Wehman

McDonough

J. L.

(2012). Transition from school to work for students with autism spectrum disorders: Understanding the process and achieving better outcomes. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 59(1), 189–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2011.10.009

37.

Sjöwall

Bohlin

Rydell

Thorell

L. B.

(2017). Neuropsychological deficits in preschool as predictors of ADHD symptoms and academic achievement in late adolescence. Child Neuropsychology, 23(1), 111–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2015.1063595

38.

Soorya

L. V.

Halpern

(2009). Psychosocial interventions for motor coordination, executive functions, and socialization deficits in ADHD and ASD. Primary Psychiatry, 16(1), 48–54. https://eds.p.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=f155c459-db78-4d81-9d158e73dff6dc84%40redis&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=36431656&db=a9h

39.

Spears

Tollefson

Simpson

(2001). Usefulness of different types of assessment data in diagnosing and planning for a student with high-functioning autism. Behavior Disorders, 26(3), 227–242. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874290102600307

40.

Spiel

C. F.

Evans

S. W.

Langberg

J. M.

(2014). Evaluating the content of Individualized Education Programs and 504 Plans of young adolescents with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. School Psychology Quarterly, 29(4), 452–468. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000101

41.

Steinbrenner

J. R.

Hume

Odom

S. L.

Morin

K. L.

Nowell

S. W.

Tomaszewski

Szendrey

McIntyre

N. S.

Yücesoy-Özkan

Savage

M. N.

(2020). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with Autism. National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice Review Team, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

42.

Tamm

Zoromski

A.K

Kneeskern

E.E

Patel

Lacey

H.M

Vaughn

A.J

Ciesielski

H.A

Weadick

H. K.

Duncan

A. W.

(2021). Achieving independence and mastery in school: an open trial in the outpatient setting. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51, 1705–1718.

43.

Tamm

Duncan

Vaughn

McDade

Estell

Birnschein

Crosby

(2020). Academic needs in middle school: Perspectives of parents and youth with autism. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 50(9), 3126–3139. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-03995-1

44.

Troyb

Rosenthal

Eigsti

I. M.

Kelley

Tyson

Orinstein

Barton

Fein

(2014). Executive functioning in individuals with a history of ASDs who have achieved optimal outcomes. Child Neuropsychology, 20(4), 378–397. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2013.799644

45.

Tucker

Schwartz

(2013). Parents’ perspectives of collaboration with school professionals: Barriers and facilitators to successful partnerships in planning for students with ASD. School Mental Health, 5(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-012-9102-0

46.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2019). American Community Survey 1-year estimates. https://censusreporter.org/profiles/31000US17140-cincinnati-oh-ky-in-metro-area/

47.

van den Bergh

S. F.

Scheeren

A. M.

Begeer

Koot

H. M.

Geurts

H. M

. (2014). Age related differences of executive functioning problems in everyday life of children and adolescents in the autism spectrum. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 44(8), 1959–1971. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2071-4

48.

Wagner

Marder

Blackorby

Cameto

Newman

Levine

Davies-Mercier

(2003). The achievements of youth with disabilities during secondary school: A report from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2. SRI International.

49.

Wei

Christiano

E. R.

J. W.

Wagner

Spiker

(2015). Reading and math achievement profiles and longitudinal growth trajectories of children with an autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 19(2), 200–210. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361313516549

50.

Wei

Wagner

Christiano

E. R.

Shattuck

J. W.

(2014). Special education services received by students with Autism Spectrum Disorders from preschool through high school. Journal of Special Education, 48(3), 167–179. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466913483576

51.

Wilczynski

S. M.

Menousek

Hunter

Mudgal

(2007). Individualized education programs for youth with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Psychology in the Schools, 44(7), 653–666. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20255

52.

Wong

Odom

S. L.

Hume

K. A.

Cox

A. W.

Fettig

Kucharczyk

Brock

M. E.

Plavnick

J. B.

Fleury

V. P.

Schultz

T. R.

(2015). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with autism spectrum disorder: A comprehensive review. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 45(7), 1951–1966. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2351-z

53.

Wong

R. S. M.

F. K. W.

Wong

W. H. S.

Tung

K. T. S.

Chow

C. B.

Rao

Chan

K. L.

(2018). Parental involvement in primary school education: Its relationship with children’s academic performance and psychosocial competence through engaging children with school. Journal of Child & Family Studies, 27(5), 1544–1555. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-1011-2

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.04 MB