Procedural Learning of a Visual Sequence in Individuals With Autism

Abstract

Implicit sequence learning, as measured using the sequential reaction time (SRT) task paradigm originally introduced by Nissen & Bullemer (1987), has been reported to be impaired in high-functioning individuals with autism (Mostofsky, Goldberg, Landa, & Denckla, 2000). We reasoned that increased exposure to the sequence may particularly benefit individuals with autism, especially those who are lower functioning. Seven individuals with autism participated in six training and test sessions of an eight-length SRT task (Experiment 1), and 5 performed a four-length SRT task (Experiment 2). Sequence learned was demonstrated at a group level on the eight-length sequence, and on an individual basis with the four-length sequence. These data demonstrate that individuals with autism, even those who are lower functioning, are capable of learning an implicit sequence with increased behavioral training. Implications for these findings are discussed.

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Ameli, R. , Courchesne, E. , Lincoln, A. , Kaufman, A.S. , & Grillon, C. (1988). Visual memory processes in high functioning individuals with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 18, 601—615.

American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author .

Bennetto, L. , Pennington, B.F. , & Rogers, S.J. (1996). Intact and impaired memory functions in autism . Child Development, 67, 1816—1835.

Boucher, J. , & Warrington, E.K. (1976). Memory deficits in early childhood autism: Another point of behavioural similarity with the amnesic syndrome. The British Journal of Psychology, 67, 73—87.

Bracken, B.A. , & McCallum, R.S. (1998). Universal nonverbal intelligence test. Itasca, IL: Riverside.

Cattell, P. (1960). Cattell infant intelligence scale. London: The Psychological Corporation.

Dunn, L. , & Dunn, L. (1997). Peabody picture vocabulary test (3rd ed.). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Services.

Gardner, M.F. (1985). Receptive and expressive one-word picture vocabulary test. Novato, CA: Academic Therapy Publications.

Hammill, D. , Pearson, N. , & Wiederholt, J.L. (1996). Comprehensive test of nonverbal intelligence (C-TONI). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

10.

Leiter, R. (1979). Leiter international performance scale battery. Windsor, UK: NFER-Nelson.

11.

Minshew, N. , & Goldstein, G. (1993). Is autism an amnesic disorder? Evidence from the California verbal learning test. Neuropsychology, 7, 209—216.

12.

Minshew, N. , & Goldstein, G. (2001). The pattern of intact and impaired memory functions in autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 42, 1095—1101.

13.

Mostofsky, S.H. , Goldberg, M.C. , Landa, R.J. , & Denckla, M.B. (2000). Evidence for a deficit in procedural learning in children and adolescents with autism: Implications for cerebellar contribution . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 6, 752—759.

14.

Muller, R.A. , Cauich, C. , Rubio, M.A. , Mizuno, A. , & Couchesne, E. (2004). Abnormal activity patterns in premotor cortex during sequence learning in autistic patients. Biological Psychiatry, 56, 323—332.

15.

Newcomer, P. , & Hammill, D. (1997). Test of language development-primary (3rd ed.). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

16.

Nissen, M.J. , & Bullemer, P. (1987). Attentional requirements of learning: Evidence from performance measures. Cognitive Psychology, 19, 1—32.

17.

Psychology Software Tools. (2002). E-Prime (Version 1.02). Pittsburgh, PA.

18.

Renner, P. , Klinger, L.G. , & Renner, M.R. (2000). Implicit and explicit memory in autism: Is autism an amnesic disorder? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 30, 3—14.

19.

Schopler, E. , Reichler, R. , Bashford, A. , Lansing, M.D. , & Marcus, L.M. (1990). The psychoeducational profile revised (PEP-R) . Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

20.

Schopler, E. , Reichler, R. , & Renner, B. (1988). The childhood autism rating scale. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

21.

Squire, L.R. (1992). Declarative and nondeclarative memory: Multiple brain systems supporting learning and memory. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 4, 232—243.

22.

Thomas, K.M. , & Nelson, C.A. (2001). Serial reaction time learning in preschool- and school-age children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 79, 364—387.

23.

Toichi, M. , & Kamio, Y. (2001). Verbal association for simple common words in high-functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31, 483—490.

24.

Wechsler, D. (2003). Wechsler intelligence scale for children (4th ed.). San Antonio, TX: Pscyhological Corporation.

25.

Williams, K.T. (1997). Expressive vocabulary test. Circle Pines, MN: AGS.

26.

Zimmerman, I.L. , Steiner, V.G. , & Pond, R.E. (1992). PLS-3: Preschool language scale-3. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.