The field of positive behavior supports has grown rapidly in the last decade as a practice to address the very real and difficult challenges posed by problem behaviors. The present article defines the current status of positive behavior support and provides a vision for where this technology will lead. The article identifies four central messages that will shape the vision for the future and discusses where we are now in relation to those central themes and where we need to go as we head into the 21st century.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Albin, R.W., Lucyshyn, J.M., Horner, R.H., & Flannery, K.B. (1996). Contextual fit for behavior support plans: A model of "goodness of fit." In L. K. Koegel, R. L. Koegel, & G. Dunlap (Eds.), Positive behavioral support (pp. 81-98). Baltimore: Brookes.
2.
Axelrod, S. (1987). Functional and structural analysis of behavior: Approaches leading to reduced use of punishment procedures. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 8, 165-178.
3.
Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behavior modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston .
4.
Berkman, K.A., & Meyer, L.H. (1988). Alternative strategies and multiple outcomes in the remediation of severe self-injury: Going "all out" nonaversively. Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 13, 76-86.
5.
Biglan, A. (1995). Translating what we know about the context of antisocial behavior into a lower prevalence of such behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28, 479-492.
6.
Bijou, S., & Baer, D.M. (1961). Child development: Vol. 1. A systematic and empirical theory. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts .
7.
Bijou, S.W., Peterson, R.F., & Ault, M.H. (1968). A method to integrate descriptive and experimental field studies at the level of data and empirical concepts. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 175-191.
8.
Blackham, G.J., & Siberman, A. (1971). Modification of child behavior. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
9.
Carr, E.G. (1977). The motivation of self-injurious behavior: A review of some hypotheses. Psychological Bulletin,84, 800-816.
10.
Carr, E.G. (1988). Functional equivalence as a mechanism of response generalization. In R. Horner, R L. Koegel, & G. Dunlap (Eds.), Generalization and maintenance: Lifestyle changes in applied settings (pp. 221-241). Baltimore: Brookes.
11.
Carr, E.G. (1994). Emerging themes in the functional analysis of problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 393-399.
12.
Carr, E.G., Horner, R.H., Turnbull, A., Marquis, J., Magito-McLaughlin, D., McAtee, M., Smith, C.E., Anderson-Ryan, K.A., Ruef, M.B., & Doolabh, A. (1999). Positive behavior support as an approach for dealing with problem behavior in people with developmental disabilities: A research synthesis. Washington, DC: American Association on Mental Retardation Monograph series.
13.
Carr, E.G., Levin, L., McConnachie, G., Carlson, J.I., Kemp, D.C., & Smith, C.E. (1994). Communication-based intervention for problem behavior: A user's guide for producing positive change. Baltimore : Brookes.
14.
Catania, A.C. (1992). Learning (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall .
15.
Didden, R., Duker, P.C., & Korzilius, H. (1997). Meta-analytic study on treatment effectiveness for problem behaviors with individuals who have mental retardation. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 101, 387-399.
16.
Doss, S., & Reichle, J. (1989). Establishing communicative alternatives to the emission of socially motivated excess behavior: A review. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 387-397.
17.
Dunlap, G., & Fox, L. (1996). Early intervention and serious problem behaviors: A comprehensive approach. In L. K. Koegel , R L. Koegel, & G. Dunlap (Eds.), Positive behavioral support: Including people with difficult behavior in the community (pp. 31-50). Baltimore : Brookes.
18.
Durand, V.M. (1990). Severe behavior problems: A functional communication training approach. New York: Guilford Press.
19.
Durand, V.M. (1997, September). Long term effects of positive behavior support. Paper presented at the Research and Training Center Conference on Positive Behavior Support, Santa Barbara, CA.
20.
Evans, I.M., & Meyer, L.H. (1985). An educative approach to behavior problems: A practical decision model for interventions with severely handicapped learners . Baltimore: Brookes.
21.
Gorham, G., & Todd, A.W. (1998). Applying function-based behavior support to teach self-management skills to a second grader. Unpublished manuscript.
22.
Horner, R.H., & Carr, E.G. (1997). Behavioral support for students with severe disabilities: Functional assessment and comprehensive intervention. The Journal of Special Education, 31, 84-104.
23.
Horner, R.H., Close, D.W., Fredericks, H.D., O'Neill, R.E., Albin, R.W., Sprague, J.R., Kennedy, C.H., Flannery, K.B., & Tuesday-Heathfield, L. (1996). Supported living for people with severe problem behaviors: A demonstration. In D. H. Lehr & F. Brown (Eds.), People with disabilities who challenge the system (pp. 209-240). Baltimore: Brookes .
24.
Horner, R.H., Diemer, S.M., & Brazeau, K.C. (1992). Educational support for students with severe problem behaviors in Oregon: A descriptive analysis from the 1987-88 school year. Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 17(3), 154-169.
25.
Horner, R.H., Dunlap, G., Koegel, R.L., Carr, E.G., Sailor, W., Anderson, J., Albin, R.W., & O'Neill, R.E. (1990). Toward a technology of "nonaversive" behavioral support. Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 15(3), 125-132.
26.
Iwata, B.A., Dorsey, M.F., Slifer, K.J., Bauman, K.E., & Richman, G.S. (1982). Toward a functional analysis of self-injury. Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 2, 3-20.
27.
Iwata, B.A., Dorsey, M.F., Slifer, K.J., Bauman, K.E., & Richman, G.S. (1994). Toward a functional analysis of self-injury. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 197-209.
28.
Iwata, B.A., & Fisher, W.W. (1997, May). Current research on the assessment and treatment of severe behavior disorders. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Behavior Analysis, Chicago.
Knitzer, J. (1993). Children's mental health policy: Challenging the future. Emotional andBehavioral Disorders, 1(1), 8-16.
31.
Koegel, L. K., Koegel, R L., & Dunlap, G. (Eds.). (1996). Positive behavioral support: Including people with difficult behavior in the community. Baltimore: Brookes.
32.
Koegel, R.L., & Koegel, L.K. (1995). Teaching children with autism. Baltimore: Brookes.
33.
Lalli, J.S., Mace, F.C., Wohn, T., & Livezey, K. (1995). Identification and modification of a response-class hierarchy. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28, 551-560.
34.
Lee, Y., Sugai, G.M., & Horner, R.H. (in press). Using an instructional intervention to reduce off-task and problem behaviors of elementary school students with academic and behavioral deficits. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions.
35.
Lehr, D. H., & Brown, F. (Eds.). (1996). People with disabilities who challenge the system (pp. 209-240). Baltimore: Brookes.
36.
Lucyshyn, J.M., Olson, D., & Horner, R.H. (1995). Building an ecology of support: A case study of one young woman with severe problem behaviors living in the community. Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 20, 16-30.
37.
Mace, F.C. (1994). The significance and future of functional analysis methodologies. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 385-392.
38.
Mace, F.C., & Roberts, M. (1993). Factors affecting selection of behavioral intervention . In J. Reichle & D. Wacker (Eds.), Communicative alternatives to challenging behavior: Integrating functional assessment and intervention strategies (pp. 113-133). Baltimore: Brookes .
39.
Michael, J.L. (1988). Establishing operations and the mand. The Analysis of VerbalBehavior, 6, 3-9.
Millenson, J.R., & Leslie, J.C. (1979). Principles of behavior analysis (2nd ed.). New York: Macmillan.
42.
Neef, N. (Ed.). (1994). Functional assessment [Special issue]. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27(2).
43.
O'Neill, R.E., Horner, R.H., Albin, R.W., Sprague, J.R., Storey, K., & Newton, J.S. (1997). Functional assessment for problem behavior: A practical handbook (2nd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole .
44.
Rachlin, H. (1976). Behavior and learning. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
45.
Reed, H., Thomas, E., Sprague, J.R., & Horner, R.H. (1997). Student guided functional assessment interview: An analysis of student and teacher agreement. Journal of BehavioralEducation, 7(1), 33-49.
46.
Reichle, J. (1990). National working conference on positive approaches to the management of excess behavior: Final report and recommendations. Minneapolis: Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota.
47.
Repp, A.C., Felce, D., & Barton, L.E. (1988). Basing the treatment of stereotypic and self-injurious behaviors on hypotheses of their causes. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 21, 281-289.
48.
Repp, A., & Horner, R. H. (Eds.). (1999). Functional analysis of problem behavior: From effective assessment to effective support. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
49.
Risley, T. (1996). Get a life! In L. K. Koegel, R L. Koegel, & G. Dunlap (Eds.), Positive behavioral support (pp. 425-437). Baltimore: Brookes.
50.
Ruef, M. (1997). The perspectives of six stake-holder groups on the challenging behavior of individuals with mental retardation and/or autism. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas , Lawrence.
51.
Sailor, W., & Skrtic, T. (1995). American education in the post modern era. In J. L. Paul, H. Roselli, & D. Evans (Eds.), Integrating school restructuring and special education reform (pp. 418-432). Ft. Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College.
52.
Sugai, G.M., & Horner, R.H. (1999). Discipline and behavioral support: Practices, pitfalls and promises. Effective School Practices, 17(4), 10-22.
53.
Taylor-Greene, S., Brown, D., Nelson, L., Longton, J., Gassman, T., Cohen, J., Swartz, J., Horner, R.H., Sugai, G., & Hall, S. (1997). School-wide behavioral support: Starting the year off right. Journal of BehavioralEducation, 7(1), 99-112.
54.
Touchette, P.E., MacDonald, R.F., & Langer, S.N. (1985). A scatter plot for identifying stimulus control of problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis , 18, 343-351.
55.
Turnbull, A.P., & Ruef, M.B. (1997). Family perspectives on inclusive lifestyle issues for individuals with problem behavior. Exceptional Children , 63, 211-227.
56.
Wacker, D., Steege, M., Northup, J., Reimers, T., Berg, W., & Sasso, G. (1990). Use of functional analysis and acceptability measures to assess and treat severe behavior problems: An outpatient model. In A. C. Repp & N. N. Singh (Eds.), Perspectives on the use of nonaversive and aversive interventions for persons with developmental disabilities (pp. 349-359). Sycamore, IL: Sycamore.
57.
Wacker, D.P., Steege, M., Northup, J., Sasso, G., Berg, W., Reimers, T., Cooper, L., Cigrand, K., & Donn, L. (1990). A component analysis of functional communication training across three topographies of severe behavior problems. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 23, 417-429.
58.
Walker, H., Colvin, G., & Ramsey, E. (1995). Antisocial behavior in public schools: Strategies and best practices. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole .
59.
Walker, H.M., Horner, R.H., Sugai, G., Bullis, M., Sprague, J.R., Bricker, D., & Kaufman, M.J. (1996). Integrated approaches to preventing antisocial behavior patterns among school-age children and youth. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 4, 194-209.