Port Electrification as Strategic Innovation: Integrating Port Technology,Policy,and Management for Decarbonization

Abstract

Port electrification has emerged as a popular strategy for achieving port, regional, and global decarbonization goals. This narrative review applies the conceptual lens of strategic innovation to interpret contemporary literature on port electrification and understand its structure and drivers as an innovation process. It first summarizes the environmental sustainability challenges in the shipping sector that are driving interest in electrification strategies. It then explores port electrification literature to identify how its technological, policy, and management innovation dimensions are reshaping port business models. Finally, it presents early implementation cases in the United States, including the Ports of Los Angeles, Long Beach, Houston, Seattle, and Cleveland. Findings show that port electrification innovations improve efficiency in port value chains, enhance the green port value proposition, and better position ports to attract sustainability-conscious users. The strategic innovation frame challenges ports and stakeholders to envision new possibilities for sustainable management and the hurdles to achieving them.

Keywords

port electrification green ports maritime shipping emissions reduction port management

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Aastvedt

T. M.

Behmiri

N. B.

(2021). Does green innovation damage financial performance of oil and gas companies? Resources Policy, 73, 102235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2021.102235

Acciaro

Ghiara

Cusano

M. I.

(2014). Energy management in seaports: A new role for port authorities. Energy Policy, 71, 4–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2014.04.013

Acciaro

Hein

Dalhuisen

Flikkema

(2025). Sustainable and Greenhouse-Gas- neutral initiatives within European ports: Insights from the MAGPIE project. In McNally

Carroll

Martinez-Pastor

Ghosh

Efthymiou

Valantasis-Kanellos

(Eds.), Transport transitions: Advancing sustainable and inclusive mobility: Proceedings of the 10th TRA conference, 2024, Dublin, Ireland - Volume 3: Eco-efficient mobility systems. Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-89444-2_58

Luo

(2024). Green innovation and corporate financial performance: Insights from operating risks. Journal of Cleaner Production, 456, 142353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.142353

Alamoush

A. S.

Ballini

Ölçer

A. I.

(2020). Ports’ technical and operational measures to reduce greenhouse gas emission and improve energy efficiency: A review. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 160, 111508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111508

Alamoush

A. S.

Ballini

Ölçer

A. I.

(2024). Management of stakeholders engaged in port energy transition. Energy Policy, 188, 114074. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2024.114074

Alamoush

A. S.

Dalaklis

Ballini

Ölcer

A. I.

(2023). Consolidating port decarbonisation implementation: Concept, pathways, barriers, solutions, and opportunities. Sustainability, 15(19), 14185. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914185

Alamoush

A. S.

Ölçer

A. I.

Ballini

(2022). Ports’ role in shipping decarbonisation: A common port incentive scheme for shipping greenhouse gas emissions reduction. Cleaner Logistics and Supply Chain, 3, 100021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clscn.2021.100021

Alexandropoulou

Koundouri

Papadaki

Kontaxaki

(2021). New Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Ports: The Deep Demonstration in Maritime Hubs Project. In Koundouri

(Ed.), The Ocean of Tomorrow (57, pp. 173–197). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030

10.

Almansor

M. J.

Din

N. M.

Baharuddin

M. Z.

Alsayednoor

H. M.

Al-Shareeda

M. A.

Ramly

A. M.

(2024). A review of seaport microgrids for green maritime transportation: The shore and the seaside. Journal of Robotics and Control (JRC), 5(3), 839–850. https://doi.org/10.18196/jrc.v5i3.21723

11.

Alvarez

A. d.L.

(2025, August 15). Plugging cruise ships into shore power is no small feat. Reasons to be Cheerful. https://reasonstobecheerful.world/cruise-ships-shore-power/

12.

American Association of Port Authorities & American Bureau of Shipping . (2024). Port decarbonization survey. https://aapa.cms-plus.com/files/appa-port-decarb-survey-publication.pdf

13.

Arnone

Crovella

(2024). Sustainable finance for maritime development: A critical analysis of green bonds in the national recovery and resilience plan. In Contemporary issues in sustainable finance: Banks, instruments, and the role of women (pp. 177–215). Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-45222-2_7

14.

Ashrafi

Acciaro

Walker

T. R.

Magnan

G. M.

Adams

(2019). Corporate sustainability in Canadian and US maritime ports. Journal of Cleaner Production, 220, 386–397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.02.098

15.

Ashrafi

Walker

T. R.

Magnan

G. M.

Adams

Acciaro

(2020). A review of corporate sustainability drivers in maritime ports: A multi-stakeholder perspective. Maritime Policy & Management, 47(8), 1027–1044. https://doi.org/10.1080/03088839.2020.1736354

16.

Australian Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts . (2023). MERNAP issues paper: Energy sources and technologies. Australian Government. https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/mernap-issues-paper--energy-sources-and-technologies--december2023.pdf

17.

Bakar

N. N. A.

Bazmohammadi

Vasquez

J. C.

Guerrero

J. M.

(2023). Electrification of onshore power systems in maritime transportation towards decarbonization of ports: A review of the cold ironing technology. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 178, 113243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.113243

18.

Barberi

Campisi

Neduzha

(2022). The role of cold ironing in maritime transport emissions. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2611(1), 060013. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0119881

19.

Barlow

B. J.

(2022). The push for zero-emissions: Lessons learned from California ports’ decarbonization projects as ports eye leveraging green technology into a commercial advantage. American Association of Port Authorities. Professional Port Manager Residency Report. https://aapa.cmsplus.com/files/PPMResidencyReport-BJasonBarlow.pdf

20.

Baruk

(2017). Strategic aspects of innovation management. Marketing of Scientific and Research Organizations, 26(4), 55−79. https://doi.org/10.14611/minib.26.12.2017.12

21.

Becker

(2020). Climate change impacts to ports and maritime supply chains. Maritime Policy & Management, 47(7), 849–852. https://doi.org/10.1080/03088839.2020.1800854

22.

Berger

(2024, July 30). The port of Los Angeles has a power problem. The Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-port-of-los-angeles-has-a-power-problem-ae614e2f

23.

Bergqvist

Monios

(2018). Green ports in theory and practice. In Bergqvist

Monios

(Eds.), Green ports: Inland and seaside sustainable transportation strategies (pp. 1–17). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814054-3.00001-3

24.

Bertrand

Williams

(2022). Issue brief | Climate change mitigation and adaptation at U.S. Ports. Environmental and Energy Study Institute. https://www.eesi.org/papers/view/issue-brief-climate-change-mitigation-and-adaptation-at-u.s-ports-2022

25.

Bilgili

Ölçer

A. I.

(2024). IMO 2023 strategy-where are we and what’s next? Marine Policy, 160, 105953. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2023.105953

26.

Bjerkan

K. Y.

Seter

(2019). Reviewing tools and technologies for sustainable ports: Does research enable decision making in ports? Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 72, 243–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2019.05.003

27.

Bjerkan

K. Y.

Ryghaug

(2021). Diverging pathways to port sustainability: How social processes shape and direct transition work. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 166, 120595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.120595

28.

Bjerkan

K. Y.

Ryghaug

Skjølsvold

T. M.

(2021). Actors in energy transitions: Transformative potentials at the intersection between Norwegian port and transport systems. Energy Research & Social Science, 72, 101868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2020.101868

29.

Bjerkan

K. Y.

Seter

(2021). Policy and politics in energy transitions. A case study on shore power in Oslo. Energy Policy, 153, 112259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112259

30.

Buckman

(2022). Programs to make the numbers work and their impacts. In Buckman

Burton

Talmadge

(Eds.), Community real estate development (pp. 29–42). Routledge.

31.

Budiyanto

M. A.

Ichfari

Shinoda

(2024). Modest method for estimating CO2 emissions from container handling equipment at ports. Sustainability, 16(23), 10293. https://doi.org/10.3390/su162310293

32.

Bullock

Higgins

Crossan

Larkin

(2023). Improving shore power project economics at the Port of Aberdeen. Marine Policy, 152, 105625. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2023.105625

33.

Bunker Index . (2009, May 5). Study: ‘green gateway’ is lowest emission route. https://www.bunkerindex.com/articles/article.php?a=2335&h=study-green-gateway-is-lowest-emission-route

34.

C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group . (2025, April). How cities can work with ports to reduce emissions and improve air quality. C40 Knowledge Hub. https://www.c40knowledgehub.org/s/article/How-cities-can-work-with-ports-to-reduce-emissions-and-improve-air-quality?language=en_US

35.

California Air Resources Board [CARB] . (2006). Emission reduction plan for ports and goods movement in California. California Environmental Protection Agency. https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/sites/default/files/classic/ch/communities/ra/westoakland/documents/reduction.pdf

36.

California Air Resources Board [CARB] . (2008). Facts about at-berth ocean-going vessels regulation. California Environmental Protection Agency. https://sustainableworldports.org/wp-content/uploads/CARB-FACTS-ABOUT-At-Berth-Ocean-Going-Vessels-Regulation.pdf

37.

California Center for Jobs & the Economy . (2024, May). Economic importance of trade & the ports to Southern California. Phase I report: Baseline Economic & fiscal impacts. https://centerforjobs.org/ca/special-reports/economic-importance-of-trade-and-the-ports-to-southern-california-phase-i-report-baseline-economic-and-fiscal-impacts

38.

California Public Utilities Commission . (n.d.). Transportation electrification. https://www.cpuc.ca.gov/industries-and-topics/electrical-energy/infrastructure/transportation-electrification

39.

Camargo-Díaz

C. P.

Paipa-Sanabria

Zapata-Cortes

J. A.

Aguirre-Restrepo

Quiñones-Bolaños

E. E.

(2022). A review of economic incentives to promote decarbonization alternatives in maritime and inland waterway transport modes. Sustainability, 14(21), 14405. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142114405

40.

Campisi

Marinello

Costantini

Laghi

Mascia

Matteucci

Serrau

(2022). Locally integrated partnership as a tool to implement a Smart Port management strategy: The case of the port of Ravenna (Italy). Ocean & Coastal Management, 224, 106179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2022.106179

41.

Cappel

(2022). Modernizing infrastructure: It’s time to act while funding is available for port renewal. Great Lakes Seaway Review. https://web.archive.org/web/20250121024900/https://seawayreview.com/modernizing-infrastructure-its-time-to-act-while-funding-is-available-for-port-renewal/

42.

Carlan

Sys

Vanelslander

(2016). How port community systems can contribute to port competitiveness: Developing a cost–benefit framework. Research in transportation business & management, 19, 51–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rtbm.2016.03.009

43.

Charitou

C. D.

Markides

C. C.

(2003). Responses to disruptive strategic innovation. MIT Sloan Management Review, 44(2), 55–63A.

44.

Chen

Huang

Xie

Lee

P. T. W.

Hua

(2019). Constructing governance framework of a green and smart port. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 7(4), 83. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse7040083

45.

Cho

(2022). Comparing integrative and systematic literature reviews. Human Resource Development Review, 21(2), 147–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/15344843221089053

46.

Christodoulou

Cullinane

(2024). The prospects for, and implications of, emissions trading in shipping. Maritime Economics & Logistics, 26(1), 168–184. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41278-023-00261-1

47.

Clear Seas . (2024, June 20). What is IMO 2020? https://clearseas.org/insights/what-is-imo-2020/

48.

Clemente

Cabral

Rosa-Santos

Taveira-Pinto

(2023). Blue seaports: The smart, sustainable and electrified ports of the future. Smart Cities, 6(3), 1560–1588. https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities6030074

49.

Costa

Agreira

C. F.

Pestana

Cao

(2024). Green ports-shore power supply State of the art. In 2024 IEEE 22nd Mediterranean Electrotechnical Conference (MELECON), Porto, Portugal, 25−27 June, 2024, pp. 1305−1309, IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/MELECON56669.2024.10608764

50.

Cullinane

Bergqvist

(2014). Emission control areas and their impact on maritime transport. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 28, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2013.12.004

51.

Cullinane

(2018). Policy on reducing shipping emissions: Implications for “Green Ports”. In Bergqvist

Monios

(Eds.), Green ports: Inland and seaside sustainable transportation strategies (pp. 35–62). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814054-3.00003-7

52.

Damman

Steen

(2021). A socio-technical perspective on the scope for ports to enable energy transition. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 91, 102691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2020.102691

53.

Densberger

N. L.

Bachkar

(2022). Towards accelerating the adoption of zero emissions cargo handling technologies in California ports: Lessons learned from the case of the Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach. Journal of Cleaner Production, 347, 131255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131255

54.

Di Vaio

Varriale

Lekakou

Stefanidaki

(2021). Cruise and container shipping companies: A comparative analysis of sustainable development goals through environmental sustainability disclosure. Maritime Policy & Management, 48(2), 184–212. https://doi.org/10.1080/03088839.2020.1754480

55.

DNV . (2025, April 23). New ECAS for the Canadian Arctic, Norwegian Sea and North-East Atlantic Ocean. https://www.dnv.com/news/2025/new-ecas-for-the-canadian-arctic-norwegian-sea-and-north-east-atlantic-ocean/

56.

Dominioni

(2023). Towards an equitable transition in the decarbonization of international maritime transport: Exemptions or carbon revenues? Marine Policy, 154, 105669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2023.105669

57.

Dooms

(2018). Stakeholder management for port sustainability: Moving from ad-hoc to structural approaches. In Bergqvist

Monios

(Eds.), Green ports: Inland and seaside sustainable transportation strategies (pp. 63–84). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814054-3.00003-7

58.

Dooms

(2019). Stakeholder management and port sustainability: The importance of inclusive planning. Journal of Business Ethics, 156(3), 659–674.

59.

Ducruet

Polo Martín

Sene

M. A.

Prete

M. L.

Sun

Itoh

Pigné

(2024). Ports and their influence on local air pollution and public health: A global analysis. Science of the Total Environment, 915, 170099. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170099

60.

Eavis

Angarita

(2023, November 1). Drought Saps the Panama Canal, Disrupting Global Trade. The New York Times.

61.

Electric Power Research Institute [EPRI] . (2008). Electrification at ports: A Port of Houston, Texas electrification case study and options for electric cranes. EPRI. Report No. 1016465. https://www.epri.com/research/products/1016465

62.

Electric Power Research Institute [EPRI] . (2023). Zero-emission planning and grid assessment for the Port of Los Angeles. EPRI. Report No. 3002025783. https://www.epri.com/research/products/000000003002025783

63.

Enayati

Titkanloo

A. S.

Mahmouie

A. M.

(2014). Strategic innovation: The formation and its effect on organization. Indian Journal of Fundamental and Applied Life Sciences, 4(S1), 157–165. https://web.archive.org/web/20240610110338/https://www.cibtech.org/sp.ed/jls/2014/01/00(19).pdf

64.

Energy News Network . (2024). Cleveland port’s electrification hub expected to anchor progress toward net-zero emissions. Ohio Capital Journal. https://ohiocapitaljournal.com/2024/05/20/cleveland-ports-electrification-hub-expected-to-anchor-progress-toward-net-zero-emissions

65.

Engelke

Webster

(2023, March 22). Rotterdam, Netherlands: An integrated approach to decarbonization. Issue Brief. The Atlantic Council. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/in-depth-research-reports/issue-brief/rotterdam-netherlands-an-integrated-approach-to-decarbonization/

66.

Environmental Ship Index . (nd). Incentives ESI. World Ports sustainability program. International Association of Ports and Harbors. https://www.environmentalshipindex.org/public/ports

67.

European Commission . (2018). Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on implementation and compliance with the sulphur standards for marine fuels set out in Directive (EU) 2016/802 relating to a reduction in the sulphur content of certain liquid fuels. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52018DC0188

68.

Ferris

(2025, March 7). Trump stalls $1B push to electrify trucking at Port of LA. E&E News. https://www.eenews.net/articles/trump-stalls-1b-push-to-electrify-trucking-at-port-of-la

69.

Finn

(2025, July 2). Japan’s carbon neutral ports initiative unveiled at ICHCA AGM in Barcelona. Logistics Manager. https://logistics-manager.com/japans-carbon-neutral-ports-initiative-unveiled-at-ichca-agm-in-barcelona/

70.

Flikkema

Will

Polman

Fortin

van Meijeren

Dalhuisen

Gaugaard

Streng

(2023). MAGPIE: Towards the European Green port of the Future. Transportation Research Procedia, 72, 187–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2023.11.393

71.

Foster

(2024, May 7). Port Houston awarded nearly US$27m for clean truck program. Electric Vehicle Charging & Infrastructure. https://www.evcandi.com/news/port-houston-awarded-nearly-us27m-clean-truck-program

72.

Frantzeskaki

Wittmayer

Loorbach

(2014). The role of partnerships in ‘realising’ urban sustainability in Rotterdam’s City Ports Area, The Netherlands. Journal of Cleaner Production, 65, 406–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.09.023

73.

Frederickson

Durbin

Scora

Jung

Johnson

Huang

(2022). Performance and activity characteristics of zero emission battery-electric cargo handling equipment at a port terminal. SAE International Journal of Advances and Current Practices in Mobility, 4(6), 2412−2425. https://doi.org/10.4271/2022-01-0576

74.

Fridell

(2018). Emissions and fuel use in the shipping sector. In Bergqvist

Monios

(Eds.), Green ports: Inland and seaside sustainable transportation strategies (pp. 19–33). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814054-3.00002-5

75.

Gallagher

(2024, October 29). Top US container ports awarded $1.6B to electrify. Freight Waves. https://www.freightwaves.com/news/top-us-container-ports-awarded-1-6b-to-electrify

76.

Garcia

Foerster

Lin

(2021). Net zero for the international shipping sector? An analysis of the implementation and regulatory challenges of the IMO strategy on reduction of GHG emissions. Journal of Environmental Law, 33(1), 85–112. https://doi.org/10.1093/jel/eqaa014

77.

Gedeon

(2022). Green shipping corridors – Great Lakes & St. Lawrence. Green Marine Magazine. No. 25. https://green-marine.org/magazine/25-green-corridors-glsl/

78.

Gelderman

C. J.

Schijns

Lambrechts

Vijgen

(2021). Green marketing as an environmental practice: The impact on green satisfaction and green loyalty in a business‐to‐business context. Business Strategy and the Environment, 30(4), 2061–2076. https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.2732

79.

Gibbs

Rigot-Muller

Mangan

Lalwani

(2014). The role of sea ports in end-to- end maritime transport chain emissions. Energy Policy, 64, 337–348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.09.024

80.

Glavinović

Krčum

Vukić

Karin

(2023). Cold ironing implementation overview in European ports—Case study—Croatian ports. Sustainability, 15(11), 8472. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15118472

81.

Global Maritime Hub . (2025, September 4). Container carriers average operating margin slips below 10%. https://globalmaritimehub.com/carriers-average-operating-margin-slips-below-10.html

82.

Gore

Rigot-Müller

Coughlan

(2023). Cost-benefit assessment of shore side electricity: An Irish perspective. Journal of Environmental Management, 326(Pt B), 116755. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116755

83.

Govindarajan

Gupta

A. K.

(2001). Strategic innovation: A conceptual road map. Business Horizons, 44(4), 3–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0007-6813(01)80041-0

84.

Green Marine . (2024a). The Port of Cleveland is establishing a new electrification hub. https://green-marine.org/stayinformed/news/the-port-of-cleveland-is-establishing-a-new-electrification-hub

85.

Green Marine . (2024b). Port of Seattle leads nation with 2027 shore power requirement for cruises. https://green-marine.org/stayinformed/news/port-of-seattle-leads-nation-with-2027-shore-power-requirement-for-cruises

86.

Griffiths

L. L.

Goodman

Voyer

Stockbridge

Lewis

Croft

Frid

C. L.

(2025). Policy implications for offshore renewable energy in Australia: An MSP approach supporting the energy transition. Energy Policy, 202, 114621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2025.114621

87.

Haar

Sánchez Flores

Courtemanche

(2023). The status, policies and outlook for green supply chains in North América. The Wilson Center. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/status-policies-and-outlook-green-supply-chains-north-america

88.

Hall

P. V.

O'Brien

Woudsma

(2013). Environmental innovation and the role of stakeholder collaboration in West Coast port gateways. Research in Transportation Economics, 42(1), 87–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.retrec.2012.11.004

89.

Hanson

S. E.

Nicholls

R. J.

(2020). Demand for ports to 2050: Climate policy, growing trade and the impacts of sea‐level rise. Earth's Future, 8(8), Article e2020EF001543. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020EF001543

90.

Holland

Islam

Mahmud

K. K.

Sheikh

(2025). Decarbonizing maritime operations: Key influences on low-emission tugboat adoption in Australian ports. Available at SSRN 5335447 .

91.

Horizon 2020 . (2024, April 12). The port of the future. European Commission. https://cordis.europa.eu/programme/id/H2020_MG-7-3-2017

92.

Hossain

M. Z.

Hasan

(2024). Sustainable cost management and green business: The role of managerial accounting innovations. European Modern Studies Journal, 8(4), 464–484. https://doi.org/10.59573/emsj.8(4).2024.24

93.

Housni

Boumane

Rasmussen

B. D.

Britel

M. R.

Barnes

Abdelfettah

Maurady

(2022). Environmental sustainability maturity system: An integrated system scale to assist maritime port managers in addressing environmental sustainability goals. Environmental Challenges, 7, 100481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2022.100481

94.

Hristov

Chirico

(2019). The role of sustainability key performance indicators (KPIs) in implementing sustainable strategies. Sustainability, 11(20), 5742. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11205742

95.

Idso

S. K.

Tuffner

F. K.

Wang

Calkins

R. A.

Mammoli

A. A.

(2024). Port electrification handbook: A reference to aid U.S. port energy transitions. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy. https://doi.org/10.2172/2479210

96.

IMO . (2020). Fourth IMO greenhouse gas study 2020. International Maritime Organization. https://www.imo.org/en/ourwork/environment/pages/fourth-imo-greenhouse-gas-study-2020.aspx

97.

IMO . (2023). IMO greenhouse gas strategy 2023. International Maritime Organization. https://www.imo.org/en/ourwork/environment/pages/2023-imo-strategy-on-reduction-of-ghg-emissions-from-ships.aspx

98.

Innes

Monios

(2018). Identifying the unique challenges of installing cold ironing at small and medium ports–The case of Aberdeen. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 62, 298–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2018.02.004

99.

International Transport Forum . (2018). Reducing shipping greenhouse gas emissions lessons from port-based incentives. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. https://www.itf-oecd.org/sites/default/files/docs/reducing-shipping-greenhouse-gas-emissions.pdf

100.

International Institute of Marine Surveying . (2025, December 7). $165.4 million Green shipping corridor program announced by Canada. https://iimscanada.ca/165-4-million-green-shipping-corridor-program-announced-by-canada/

101.

Iris

Ç.

Lam

J. S. L.

(2019). A review of energy efficiency in ports: Operational strategies, technologies and energy management systems. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 112, 170–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.04.069

102.

Jägerbrand

A. K.

Brutemark

Barthel Svedén

Gren

(2019). A review on the environmental impacts of shipping on aquatic and nearshore ecosystems. Science of the Total Environment, 695, 133637. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.133637

103.

Jasmi

M. F. A.

Fernando

(2018). Drivers of maritime green supply chain management. Sustainable Cities and Society, 43, 366–383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2018.09.001

104.

Jeevan

Mohd Salleh

N. H.

Abdul Karim

N. H.

Cullinane

(2023). An environmental management system in seaports: Evidence from Malaysia. Maritime Policy & Management, 50(8), 1118–1135. https://doi.org/10.1080/03088839.2022.2047814

105.

Jiang

Bai

(2022). Strategic or substantive innovation? The impact of institutional investors’ site visits on green innovation evidence from China. Technology in Society, 68, 101904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2022.101904

106.

Kokosalakis

Merika

X. A.

(2021). Environmental regulation on the energy-intensive container ship sector: A restraint or opportunity? Marine Policy, 125, 104278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104278

107.

Kumar

Kumpulainen

Kauhaniemi

(2019). Technical design aspects of harbour area grid for shore to ship power: State of the art and future solutions. International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems, 104, 840–852. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2018.07.051

108.

Lam

J. S. L.

(2018). Smart and green cargo handling equipment for port sustainable energy management. Nanyang Technological University. https://www.ntu.edu.sg/docs/librariesprovider79/publication/ntu2018-smart-and-green-cargo-handling-equipment-for-port-sustainable-energy-management.pdf?sfvrsn=bc89f7ef_2

109.

Lam

J. S. L.

K. X.

(2019). Green port marketing for sustainable growth and development. Transport Policy, 84, 73–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2019.04.011

110.

Lam

J. S. L.

Notteboom

(2014). The greening of ports: A comparison of port management tools used by leading ports in Asia and Europe. Transport Reviews, 34(2), 169–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/01441647.2014.891162

111.

Lane

J. M.

Pretes

(2020). Maritime dependency and economic prosperity: Why access to oceanic trade matters. Marine Policy, 121, 104180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104180

112.

S. T.

(2024). Research on drivers and barriers to the implementation of cold ironing technology in zero emissions port. Environmental Health Insights, 18, 11786302241265090. https://doi.org/10.1177/11786302241265090

113.

Lee

Nam

(2017). A study on green shipping in major countries: In the view of shipyards, shipping companies, ports, and policies. The Asian Journal of Shipping and Logistics, 33(4), 253–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajsl.2017.12.009

114.

Ravi

Heath

Zhang

Vahmani

Lee

S. M.

Zhang

Sanders

K. T.

Ban-Weiss

G. A.

(2024). Air quality and public health co-benefits of 100% renewable electricity adoption and electrification pathways in Los Angeles. Environmental Research Letters, 19(3), 034015. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ad24cc

115.

Wang

Zhou

Xiao

Yan

Liu

(2023). Review on key technologies of green power supply for port microgrid. Complex Engineering Systems, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.20517/ces.2022.46

116.

Jia

Jiang

Kuang

Hong

Wang

Zhao

Guan

(2023). The climate impact of high seas shipping. National Science Review, 10(3), nwac279. https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwac279

117.

Liu

Chen

(2022). Has environmental regulation facilitated the green transformation of the marine industry? Marine Policy, 144, 105238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105238

118.

London Maritime Academy . (2025, February 15). What is an emission control area? Understanding its impact on the maritime industry. https://www.lmitac.com/articles/what-is-an-emission-control-area

119.

Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (LADWP) . (2024). 2023-24 budget book: Infrastructure and sustainability initiatives. https://www.ladwp.com/sites/default/files/2024-06/2023-24_BB_FullBook_Digital.pdf

120.

Lyseiuk

(2025). Economic Warfare in the Black Sea: A Geoeconomic Analysis of Coercion Through Grain, Blockades, and Energy Infrastructure. Politics & Security, 14(4), 6–15. https://doi.org/10.54658/ps.28153324.2025.14.4.pp.6-15

121.

Mahmud

K. K.

Chowdhury

M. M. H.

Shaheen

M. M. A.

(2024). Green port management practices for sustainable port operations: A multi method study of Asian ports. Maritime Policy & Management, 51(8), 1902–1937. https://doi.org/10.1080/03088839.2023.2258125

122.

Mann

R. F.

(2023). Driving transformation: Tax strategies for electrifying light-duty transportation. Environmental Law Reporter, 53, 10298.

123.

Mann

R. F.

Roberts

T. M.

(2025). The long and winding road: The inflation reduction act’s energy and environmental tax credits. National Tax Journal, 78(1), 223–261. https://doi.org/10.1086/733764

124.

Marine Insight . (2023). Port of Seattle becomes first in U.S. to mandate shore power for all homeported cruise ships. https://www.marineinsight.com/shipping-news/port-of-seattle-becomes-first-in-u-s-to-mandate-shore-power-for-all-homeported-cruise-ships

125.

Maritime Administration (MARAD) . (2024). Port infrastructure development program (PIDP) grants. United States Department of Transportation. https://www.maritime.dot.gov/PIDPgrants

126.

Markides

(1997). Strategic innovation. Sloan Management Review, 38(3), 9–23.

127.

Markides

Oyon

(2010). What to do against disruptive business models: When and how to play two games at once. MIT Sloan Management Review, 51(4), 25–32.

128.

Masodzadeh

P. G.

Ölçer

A. I.

Ballini

Dalaklis

(2024). The contribution of ports to shipping decarbonization: An analysis of port incentive programmes and the executive role of port state control. Transport Economics and Management, 2, 191–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.team.2024.07.003

129.

May

P. J.

Jochim

A. E.

(2013). Policy regime perspectives: Policies, politics, and governing. Policy Studies Journal, 41(3), 426–452. https://doi.org/10.1111/psj.12024

130.

McCallum

(2022). Green Ports—Sustainable port development. In Ports 2022 (pp. 592–600). American Society of Civil Engineers. https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784484401.059

131.

Merkel

Nyberg

Sjöstrand

(2023). Economics of shore power under different access pricing. Research in Transportation Economics, 101, 101330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.retrec.2023.101330

132.

Mete

Hocquet

Sanchez

Talebian

Nilsson

Choi

Lee

S. K.

Eunmi Lee

Moon

(2021). Reaching net-zero industry through public-private partnerships. Leadership group for industry transformation. https://www.industrytransition.org/insights/net-zero-industry-public-private-partnerships/

133.

Monios

Wilmsmeier

Tello

G. A. M.

Pomaska

(2024). A new conception of port governance under climate change. Journal of Transport Geography, 120, 103988. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2024.103988

134.

Mueller

Westerby

Nieuwenhuijsen

(2023). Health impact assessments of shipping and port-sourced air pollution on a global scale: A scoping literature review. Environmental Research, 216(Pt 1), 114460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.114460

135.

Muff

(2021). Learning from positive impact organizations: A framework for strategic innovation. Sustainability, 13(16), 8891. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13168891

136.

Munim

Z. H.

Sornn-Friese

Dushenko

(2020). Identifying the appropriate governance model for green port management: Applying analytic network process and best-worst methods to Ports in the Indian Ocean Rim. Journal of Cleaner Production, 268, 122156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122156

137.

A. K.

Song

(2010). The environmental impacts of pollutants generated by routine shipping operations on ports. Ocean & Coastal Management, 53(5−6), 301–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2010.03.002

138.

Nolan

(2025, February 19). Top 10: Ports adopting EV fleets. EV Magazine. https://evmagazine.com/top10/top-10-ports-adopting-ev-fleets

139.

Notteboom

Haralambides

Cullinane

(2024). The red sea crisis: Ramifications for vessel operations, shipping networks, and maritime supply chains. Maritime Economics & Logistics, 26(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41278-024-00287-z

140.

Notteboom

Pallis

(2022). Chapter 4.5 - Green Port governance. In Notteboom

Pallis

Rodrigue

J. P.

(Eds.), Port economics, management and policy. Routledge.

141.

Notteboom

Pallis

Rodrigue

J. P.

(2022). Port economics, management and policy. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429318184

142.

Notteboom

Pallis

Rodrigue

J. P.

(2025). Average Operating margins of main carriers by quarter, Q1 2008 to Q2 2025. Port Economics, Management and Policy. https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/

143.

Notteboom

Van Der Lugt

Van Saase

Sel

Neyens

(2020). The role of seaports in green supply chain management: Initiatives, attitudes, and perspectives in Rotterdam, Antwerp, North Sea Port, and Zeebrugge. Sustainability, 12(4), 1688. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12041688

144.

Lee

S. W.

Seo

Y. J.

(2018). The evaluation of seaport sustainability: The case of South Korea. Ocean & Coastal Management, 161, 50–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2018.04.028

145.

Omholt-Jensen

(2025, May 16). Global sulphur regulations, ECA, and SECA zones. Maritime Optima. https://maritimeoptima.com/insights/global-sulphur-regulations-eca-seca-zones

146.

Patel

(2023, September 27). Port authority accelerates agency’s electric vehicle fleet conversion. Now Arriving: The Official Blog of the Port Authority of New York & New Jersey. https://www.panynj.gov/port-authority/en/blogs/sustainability/port-authority-accelerates-agency-s-electric-vehicle-fleet-conve.html

147.

Patel

(2022, April 11). Port Houston commits to carbon neutrality by 2050. Houston Business Journal. https://www.bizjournals.com/houston/news/2022/04/11/port-houston-commits-to-carbon-neutrality-by-2050.html

148.

Paul

Sayler

(2024). Energy shift-renewables integration at major Ports–A step forward to solve air pollution. IEEE Industry Applications Magazine, 31(5), 58−69. https://doi.org/10.1109/MIAS.2025.3576518

149.

Pavlic

Cepak

Sucic

Peckaj

Kandus

(2014). Sustainable port infrastructure, practical implementation of the green port concept. Thermal Science, 18(3), 935–948. https://doi.org/10.2298/TSCI1403935P

150.

Peris-Mora

Orejas

J. D.

Subirats

Ibáñez

Alvarez

(2005). Development of a system of indicators for sustainable port management. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 50(12), 1649–1660. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2005.06.048

151.

Pirhadi

Krasowsky

T. S.

Gatt

Quiros

D. C.

(2024). Criteria pollutant and greenhouse gas emissions from cargo handling equipment operating at the Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach. Science of the Total Environment, 927, 172084. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172084

152.

Pitt

Clarke

(1999). Competing on competence: A knowledge perspective on the management of strategic innovation. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 11(3), 301–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172084

153.

Polo Martín

(2024). Environmental sustainability in maritime hubs: The case of Santa Pola, Spain. In Skupchenko

J. K.

(Ed.), Towards circular: Analysis of the coastal areas of Greece, Italy and Spain. Think Tank AlterContacts. https://www.altercontacts.org/publications/towards-circular-2024/es-sd-1

154.

Port Houston Authority . (2020a, June 8). Greening the fleet: New electric vehicles arrive at port Houston.Port Houston blog. https://porthouston.com/greening-the-fleet-new-electric-vehicles-arrive-at-port-houston/

155.

Port Houston Authority . (2020, December 4). Port Houston focused on renewable electricity and environmental sustainability. Port Houston blog. https://porthouston.com/port-houston-focused-on-renewable-electricity-and-environmental-sustainability/

156.

Port Houston Authority . (2024, June 25). Port Houston welcomes arrival of hybrid-electric cranes. News Release. https://porthouston.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Port-Houston-Welcomes-Arrival-of-Hybrid-Electric-Cranes.pdf

157.

Port of Cleveland . (2024, February 8). Port of Cleveland secures $32 million for modernization and sustainability. https://www.portofcleveland.com/approves-32-million-for-modernization-and-sustainability

158.

Port of Houston Authority . (2003, August/September). Bayport: Balancing economic progress and environmental sensitivity. Port of Houston Magazine. https://portarchive.com/2003/2003August-SeptemberPage1to14.pdf

159.

Port of Long Beach . (2018). Grant-funded zero-emission demonstration projects. https://thehelm.polb.com/download/379/zero-emissions/6767/zero-emissions-grants-overview-fact-sheet-102218.pdf

160.

Port of Los Angeles . (2024b, October 29). Port of Los Angeles awarded $412 million grant from U.S. EPA for zero-emission transformation. https://www.portoflosangeles.org/references/2024-news-releases/news_102924_epa_grant

161.

Port of Los Angeles . (nd). Alternative maritime power (AMP): About AMP®. https://www.portoflosangeles.org/environment/air-quality/alternative-maritime-power-(amp)

162.

Port of Los Angeles . (2014). Annual report. Port of Los Angeles.

163.

Port of Los Angeles . (2021). Annual report. Port of Los Angeles.

164.

Port of Los Angeles . (2023). Annual report 2023. Port of Los Angeles.

165.

Port of Los Angeles . (2024a, October 4). Broad gains in clean air progress at port of Los Angeles. https://www.portoflosangeles.org/references/2024-news-releases/news_100424_emissions_inventory

166.

Port of Los Angeles; Port of Long Beach . (2006). Final 2006 San Pedro Bay Ports Clean Air Action Plan Overview. Port of Los Angeles & Port of Long Beach. https://cleanairactionplan.org/wpfd_file/2006-clean-air-action-plan-update-final-overview/.

167.

Port of Rotterdam . (nd). Energy transition: Towards a CO2 neutral port. https://www.portofrotterdam.com/en/port-future/energy-transition

168.

Port of Seattle . (nda). Century agenda: Strategic objectives. https://www.portseattle.org/page/century-agenda-strategic-objectives

169.

Port of Seattle . (ndb). The world’s first green corridor for cruise. https://www.portseattle.org/projects/worlds-first-green-corridor-cruise

170.

Port of Seattle . (2009). The green gateway: Carbon footprint study for the Asia to North America intermodal trade. https://meetings.portseattle.org/portmeetings/attachments/2009/RM_20090505_Item_7c_Supp.pdf

171.

Port of Seattle . (2023). Cruise ship shore power facts. https://www.portseattle.org/page/cruise-ship-shore-power-facts

172.

Port of Seattle . (2025, April 22). Port electrification strategy prepares for energy transition and future power needs by 2050. https://www.portseattle.org/news/port-electrification-strategy-prepares-energy-transition-and-future-power-needs-2050

173.

Port of Seattle Port of Tacoma Vancouver Port Authority (2007, December). Northwest ports clean air strategy. https://www.portseattle.org/sites/default/files/2020-12/NWPCAS2008.pdf

174.

Ports and Harbours Bureau . (2025). CNP certification (container terminal). Japan Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport, and Tourism. https://www.mlit.go.jp/kowan/kowan_fr4_000093.html

175.

Professional Mariner . (2014, January 8). Port of Los Angeles ready to meet state’s shore-side power requirements. Professional Mariner: Journal of the Maritime Industry. https://professionalmariner.com/port-of-los-angeles-ready-to-meet-states-shore-side-power-requirements/.

176.

Professional Mariner . (2024, October 2). ABS, Port Houston, Moran among NAMEPA award winners. Professional Mariner: Journal of the Maritime Industry. https://professionalmariner.com/abs-port-houston-moran-among-namepa-award-winners/

177.

Puig

Wooldridge

Darbra

R. M.

(2014). Identification and selection of environmental performance indicators for sustainable port development. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 81(1), 124–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.02.006

178.

Qazi

Venugopal

Rietveld

Soeiro

T. B.

Shipurkar

Grasman

Watson

A. J.

Wheeler

(2023). Powering maritime: Challenges and prospects in ship electrification. IEEE Electrification Magazine, 11(2), 74–87. https://doi.org/10.1109/MELE.2023.3264926

179.

Rai

(2025). Turbulent waters in the red sea: Understanding maritime shipping business impacts and implications. Journal of Transportation Security, 18(1), 17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12198-025-00299-7

180.

Ramboll US Consulting . (2021). Transportation electrification infrastructure costs in California: A meta-study of published literature. Project Number 1690021217. Western States Petroleum Association.

181.

Ramirez-Ibarra

Saphores

J. D. M.

(2023). Health and equity impacts from electrifying drayage trucks. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 116, 103616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2023.103616

182.

Raza

(2020). Effects of regulation-driven green innovations on short sea shipping’s environmental and economic performance. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 84, 102340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2020.102340

183.

Ren

Wang

(2023). Institutional pressures as drivers of corporate green innovation: Do provincial officials and CEOs matter? Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(14), 40608–40629. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-24962-x

184.

Reyes-Valarde

(2025, March 20). ‘Herculean effort’: These port communities have waited decades for clean air. Why a new plan may fall short. CalMatters. https://calmatters.org/environment/2025/03/port-communities-air-pollution-plan-los-angeles-long-beach/

185.

Roberts

Williams

Preston

Clarke

Odum

O’Gorman

(2023). Ports in a storm: Port-city environmental challenges and solutions. Sustainability, 15(12), 9722. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129722

186.

Rodrigues

K. T.

Ensslin

S. R.

(2024). Environmental performance evaluation in ports: A literature review and future research guidelines. Maritime Economics & Logistics, 26(2), 241–260. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41278-023-00268-8

187.

Rotterdam Climate Alliance . (2020). Rotterdam climate agreement. https://cdn.locomotive.works/sites/5ab410c8a2f42204838f797e/content_entry5ab410faa2f42204838f7990/5be174d6337f770010c1b69f/files/1.2.2_Rotterdam_Climate_Agreement_ENG.pdf

188.

Rouyre

Fernandez

A. S.

Bruyaka

(2024). Big problems require large collective actions: Managing multilateral coopetition in strategic innovation networks. Technovation, 132, 102968. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.technovation.2024.102968

189.

Różewicz

(2020). Rotterdam’s sustainability strategy: A case study on municipal policies. Semestre Económico, 23(54), 225–237. https://doi.org/10.22395/seec.v23n54a11

190.

Safety4Sea . (2024, October 31). Singapore’s revised green initiative to support IMO’s targets by 2050. https://safety4sea.com/singapores-revised-green-initiative-to-support-imos-targets-by-2050/

191.

San Pedro Bay Ports . (2017). Clean air action plan 2017. https://cleanairactionplan.org/download/205/2017-caap-documents/4984/final-2017-caap-update.pdf

192.

San Pedro Bay Ports . (2022). 2021 feasibility assessment for cargo-handling assessment. https://cleanairactionplan.org/strategies/cargo-handling-equipment/

193.

Saravia de los Reyes

Fernández-Sánchez

Esteban

M. D.

Rodríguez

R. R.

(2020). Carbon footprint of a port infrastructure from a life cycle approach. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(20), 7414. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17207414

194.

Sæther

S. R.

Moe

(2021). A green maritime shift: Lessons from the electrification of ferries in Norway. Energy Research & Social Science, 81, 102282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2021.102282

195.

Satta

Vitellaro

Njikatoufon

A. G.

Risitano

(2024). Green strategies in ports: A stakeholder management perspective. Maritime Economics & Logistics, 27, 96–122. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41278-024-00294-0

196.

Schipper

C. A.

Vreugdenhil

De Jong

M. P. C.

(2017). A sustainability assessment of ports and port-city plans: Comparing ambitions with achievements. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 57, 84–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2017.08.017

197.

Schlegelmilch

B. B.

Diamantopoulos

Kreuz

(2003). Strategic innovation: The construct, its drivers and its strategic outcomes. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 11(2), 117–132. https://doi.org/10.1080/0965254032000102948

198.

Schoch

(2005, June 30). Hahn supports task force’s plan. Los Angeles Times. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2005-jun-30-me-port30-story.html

199.

Schodler

Saraceni

(2024). Factors influencing greenhouse gas reduction measures in European ports: Implications for sustainable investing. Journal of Risk and Financial Management, 17(8), 329. https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm17080329

200.

Seattle City Light . (2024, October 21). Maritime electrification in Seattle: A path to a sustainable future. Seattle City Light Powerlines blog. https://powerlines.seattle.gov/2024/10/21/maritime-electrification-in-seattle-a-path-to-a-sustainable-future/

201.

Shih

W. C.

(2022). Climate regulations are about to disrupt global shipping. Harvard Business Review Digital Articles. https://archive.ph/cy3rR

202.

Ship Technology . (2009, December 21). The alternative power dock. https://www.ship-technology.com/features/feature72825/?cf-view

203.

Shokri

(2026, March 3). Global markets and the Strait of Hormuz: The economic shockwaves of the Iran war. The Henry L. Stimson Center. https://www.stimson.org/2026/global-markets-and-the-strait-of-hormuz-the-economic-shockwaves-of-the-iran-war/

204.

Simpson

(2021, June). Electrification of California Ports. Report Number 202025. Moffat & Nichol. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/65c511cb0e45ff412eec4118/t/6656589d35736c2e1b7e1b37/1716934815993/Electrification-of-California-Ports-FINAL-June-2021-Signed.pdf

205.

Sköld

(2019). Green port dues—Indices and incentive schemes for shipping. In Bergqvist

Monios

(Eds.), Green ports: Inland and seaside sustainable transportation strategies (pp. 173–192). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814054-3.00006-2

206.

Sreeharsha

(2024, June 17). Why cruise ships docked at the Miami port will plug into giant electrical outlets. Miami Herald. https://www.miamiherald.com/living/travel/article289271390.html

207.

Styhre

Winnes

(2018). Emissions from ships in ports. In Bergqvist

Monios

(Eds.), Green ports: Inland and seaside sustainable transportation strategies (pp. 109–124). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814054-3.00006-2

208.

Sukhera

(2022). Narrative reviews: Flexible, rigorous, and practical. Journal of Graduate Medical Education, 14(4), 414–417. https://doi.org/10.4300/JGME-D-22-00480.1

209.

Susino

(2010). Clearing the air with shore power connections. The Journal of Ocean Technology, 5(1), 47–55. https://www.thejot.net/archive-issues/?page_id=73&id=22

210.

Systemiq & ZENMO . (2023). The breakthrough effect: How to trigger a cascade of tipping points to accelerate the net zero transition. Systemiq. https://www.systemiq.earth/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/The-Breakthrough-Effect.pdf

211.

Szekely

Strebel

(2013). Incremental, radical and game-changing: Strategic innovation for sustainability. Corporate Governance, 13(5), 467–481. https://doi.org/10.1108/CG-06-2013-0084

212.

Tadros

Ventura

Soares

C. G.

(2023). Review of current regulations, available technologies, and future trends in the green shipping industry. Ocean Engineering, 280, 114670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2023.114670

213.

Taljaard

Slinger

J. H.

Arabi

Weerts

S. P.

Vreugdenhil

(2021). The natural environment in port development: A ‘green handbrake’ or an equal partner? Ocean & Coastal Management, 199, 105390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2020.105390

214.

The Maritime Executive . (2004, June 24). Port of Los Angeles goes green. https://maritime-executive.com/article/2004-06-24port-of-los-angeles-goes-green

215.

The Maritime Executive . (2013, December 26). Port of hueneme closes new markets tax credits deal. https://maritime-executive.com/corporate/Port-of-Hueneme-Closes-New-Markets-Tax-Credits-Deal-2013-12-26

216.

Torvanger

Tvedt

Hovi

I. B.

(2023). Carbon dioxide mitigation from public procurement with environmental conditions: The case of short-sea shipping in Norway. Maritime Transport Research, 4, 100085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.martra.2023.100085

217.

Toscano

(2023). The impact of shipping on air quality in the port cities of the Mediterranean area: A review. Atmosphere, 14(7), 1180. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14071180

218.

Tran

N. K.

Haralambides

Notteboom

Cullinane

(2025). The costs of maritime supply chain disruptions: The case of the Suez Canal blockage by the ‘ever given’ megaship. International Journal of Production Economics, 279, 109464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2024.109464

219.

Transport Canada . (2024). Canadian green shipping corridors framework. https://tc.canada.ca/en/marine-transportation/marine-pollution-environmental-response/green-shipping-corridors/framework

220.

Tsai

H. L.

C. S.

(2022). Port institutional responses and sustainability performance: A moderated mediation model. Maritime Policy & Management, 49(8), 1075–1096. https://doi.org/10.1080/03088839.2021.1946608

221.

Tseng

P. H.

Pilcher

(2019). Evaluating the key factors of green port policies in Taiwan through quantitative and qualitative approaches. Transport Policy, 82, 127–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2018.12.014

222.

Tsiulin

Reinau

K. H.

(2022). How to reduce emissions in maritime ports? An overview of cargo handling innovations and Port services. In Proceedings of SAI intelligent systems conference (pp. 295−311). Springer International Publishing.

223.

Tsolakis

Zissis

Papaefthimiou

Korfiatis

(2022). Towards AI driven environmental sustainability: An application of automated logistics in container port terminals. International Journal of Production Research, 60(14), 4508–4528. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207543.2021.1914355

224.

Twrdy

Zanne

(2020). Improvement of the sustainability of ports logistics by the development of innovative green infrastructure solutions. Transportation Research Procedia, 45, 539–546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2020.03.059

225.

United States Environmental Protection Agency [U.S. EPA] . (2022). Shore power technology assessment at U.S. Ports: 2022 update. Report No. EPA-420-R-22-037. https://www.epa.gov/ports-initiative/shore-power-technology-assessment-us-ports

226.

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development [UNCTAD] . (2023). Review of maritime transport 2023: Towards a green and just green and just transition transition. United Nations. https://unctad.org/publication/review-maritime-transport-2023

227.

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development [UNCTAD] . (2024). Review of maritime transport 2024: Navigating maritime chokepoints. United Nations. https://unctad.org/publication/review-maritime-transport-2024

228.

Varadarajan

(2018). Innovation, innovation strategy, and strategic innovation. In Varadarajan

Jayachandran

(Eds.), Innovation and strategy (pp. 143–166). Emerald Publishing Limited.

229.

Vega-Muñoz

Salazar-Sepulveda

Espinosa-Cristia

J. F.

Sanhueza-Vergara

(2021). How to measure environmental performance in ports. Sustainability, 13(7), 4035. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13074035

230.

Verschuur

Koks

E. E.

Hall

J. W.

(2023). Systemic risks from climate-related disruptions at ports. Nature Climate Change, 13(8), 804–806. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-023-01754-w

231.

Walker

T. R.

(2016). Green Marine: An environmental program to establish sustainability in marine transportation. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 105(1), 199–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.02.029

232.

Wang

Liu

Wang

Chen

Wang

(2023). A review of the port carbon emission sources and related emission reduction technical measures. Environmental Pollution, 320, 121000. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121000

233.

Walker

T. R.

Adebambo

Feijoo

M. C. D. A.

Elhaimer

Hossain

Edwards

S. J.

Morrison

C. E.

Romo

Sharma

Taylor

Zomorodi

(2019). Environmental effects of marine transportation. In World seas: An environmental evaluation (pp. 505–530). Academic Press.

234.

Wang

(2024). Charting a greener course: China’s recent legal strategies in shore power promotion for achieving maritime emission targets. Marine Policy, 170, 106386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2024.106386

235.

Wang

Zhong

(2024). Governments’ environmental targets and corporate green innovation. Emerging Markets Finance and Trade, 61(7), 1878–1894. https://doi.org/10.1080/1540496X.2024.2437452

236.

Warren

(2024, June 21). How an EPRI study is accelerating emissions reductions at the Port of Los Angeles. EPRI Journal. https://eprijournal.com/port-of-entry-for-electrification/

237.

Wei

Liu

Cao

Zhang

(2025). Environmental subsidies and green innovation: The role of environmental regulation and chief executive officer green background. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, 27(1), 389–402. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-024-02755-9

238.

Weng

Han

Shi

(2022). Impact analysis of ECA policies on ship trajectories and emissions. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 179, 113687. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.113687

239.

Whitson

(2023). Zero-emission Port vehicles key to decarbonization. Maritime Logistics Professional. https://www.maritimeprofessional.com/news/zero-emission-port-vehicles-decarbonization-383458

240.

Williams

Blasberg

L. A.

(2022). SDG platforms as strategic innovation through partnerships. Journal of Business Ethics, 180(4), 1041–1057. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-022-05194-y

241.

Williamsson

Costa

Santén

Rogerson

(2022). Barriers and drivers to the implementation of onshore power supply—A literature review. Sustainability, 14(10), 6072. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14106072

242.

Williment

(2025, February 20). How the Port of LA is driving sustainability city-wide. Sustainability Magazine. https://sustainabilitymag.com/articles/how-la-is-on-track-to-becoming-the-greenest-city-in-the-us

243.

Wison

C. A.

(2000). Policy regimes and policy change. Journal of Public Policy, 20(3), 247–274. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0143814X00000842

244.

World Ports Sustainability Program [WPSP] . (2019). Port of Los Angeles – Zero emissions pathway technology demonstrations. International Association of Ports and Harbors. https://sustainableworldports.org/project/port-of-los-angeles-zero-emissions-pathway/

245.

Zhao

Haroon

(2024). Evidence from China's shipping sector on the impact of fiscal measures in enabling a low-carbon economic transition. Heliyon, 10(9), Article e30147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30147

246.

Xiao

Amamoo-Otoo

Wang

Biancardo

S. A.

(2025). Evaluating the impact of ECA policy on sulfur emissions from the five busiest ports in America based on difference in difference model. Frontiers in Marine Science, 12, 1609261. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2025.1609261

247.

Yang

Song

Liu

(2024). Green signals: The impact of environmental protection support policies on firms' green innovation. Business Strategy and the Environment, 33(4), 3258–3278. https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.3656

248.

Yang

Jiang

Cai

(2023). A review of key technologies of shore power systems. In 12th International Conference on Renewable Power Generation (RPG 2023), Shanghai, China, 14−15 October 2023, pp. 1162−1167, IET. https://doi.org/10.1049/icp.2023.2451

249.

Yang

Y. C.

Chang

W. M.

(2013). Impacts of electric rubber-tired gantries on green port performance. Research in Transportation Business & Management, 8, 67–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rtbm.2013.04.002

250.

Yap

W. Y.

Notteboom

(2024). Renewable energy options for seaport cargo terminals with application to mega port Singapore. Maritime Business Review, 9(4), 294–310. https://doi.org/10.1108/MABR-12-2023-0083

251.

Yin

C. Y.

Chang

H. H.

(2022). What is the link between strategic innovation and organizational sustainability? Historical review and bibliometric analytics. Sustainability, 14(11), 6937. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14116937

252.

Zhang

Wang

Huang

(2022). China’s policy for the marine engineering equipment industry and potential challenges: An appraisal of the new developments under the 14th five-year plans. Frontiers in Marine Science, 9, 1014959. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.1014959

253.

Zhang

Zheng

Wan

Zheng

(2020). Does emission control area policy reduce sulfur dioxides concentration in Shanghai? Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 81, 102289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2020.102289

254.

Zhang

Peng

Y. Q.

Wang

X. J.

Feng

X. J.

(2017). Air emission inventory of container ports’ cargo handling equipment with activity-based “bottom-up” method. Advances in Mechanical Engineering, 9(7), 1687814017711389. https://doi.org/10.1177/1687814017711389

255.

Zhang

Luo

(2024). Substantive or strategic: Government R&D subsidies and green innovation. Finance Research Letters, 67, 105796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.frl.2024.105796

256.

Zhang

Song

Zhang

Chen

Liu

Aziz

Kurniawan

T. A.

Yap

P. S.

(2024). Digitalization and innovation in green ports: A review of current issues, contributions and the way forward in promoting sustainable ports and maritime logistics. Science of the Total Environment, 912, 169075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.169075

257.

Zhao

Abbassi

Hunjra

A. I.

Zhang

(2024). How do government R&D subsidies affect corporate green innovation choices? Perspectives from strategic and substantive innovation. International Review of Economics & Finance, 93, 1378–1396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iref.2024.04.014

258.

Zhao

T. T.

Pham

T. H.

Lee

H. S.

(2020). An study on estimating cargo handling equipment emission in the port of Incheon. Journal of Korea Port Economic Association, 36(3), 21–38. https://doi.org/10.38121/kpea.2020.09.36.3.21

259.

Zhou

Wang

Liu

Yang

Guo

Zhu

Han

(2023). Influence of ship emission control area policy on air quality at Shanghai Port—Local and regional perspectives. Ecological Indicators, 155, 110951. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2023.110951

260.

Zhou

Shu

Jiang

Gao

(2019). Green management, firm innovations, and environmental turbulence. Business Strategy and the Environment, 28(4), 567–581. https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.2265

261.

Zis

T. P.

(2019). Prospects of cold ironing as an emissions reduction option. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 119, 82–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2018.11.003