Abstract
While prior literature has explored how different participation modalities can align with pre-specified goals in public involvement programs, research is needed on how configurations of participation modalities can address informational goals that are unique to PPPs. This study addresses this need by integrating insights from the literatures on PPPs and on public involvement to develop a theoretical framework. This study underscores the importance of ensuring public consultation before design options are finalized and emphasizes the potential of virtual public involvement (VPI) tools to educate citizens and gain their perspectives on PPPs. Emerging and established tools in digital engagement thus offer great promise for meeting the informational needs of PPPs, yet traditional in-person consultations remain essential for achieving the community agreement needed to align projects with local preferences. VPI tools can also improve citizen exposure to project components, yet many present more opportunities for conveying technical details than financial ones.
Keywords
Introduction
Although public-private partnerships (PPPs) have gained popularity in advancing transportation infrastructure (Siemiatycki, 2007; Wang et al., 2021), growing evidence reveals significant challenges in incorporating the needs of the publics they aim to serve (Chen et al., 2013; Jiang et al., 2023; Tariq & Zhang, 2020; Zhang & Ali Soomro, 2016). Improving the collection and communication of technical and financial information about PPPs remains an understudied aspect of public involvement challenges in these forms of project delivery (De Schepper et al., 2014; El-Gohary et al., 2006; Reynaers & Grimmelikhuijsen, 2015; Shaoul et al., 2010). While prior literature has explored how different participation modalities can align with pre-specified goals in public involvement programs (Floress & Cohen, 2022; Flyvbjerg, 2004; Grossardt et al., 2003; Pantic et al., 2021; Rowe & Frewer, 2000), research is needed on how configurations of participation modalities can address the informational goals that are unique to PPPs. Exploring these intersections is especially important given the increasing availability of virtual public involvement tools (VPI) for use by public managers. Two research questions therefore guide this study: how can information disclosure and information collection with the public be improved in transportation projects developed through PPPs, and how can VPI innovations enhance community relations and engagement in these projects?
This research aims to bridge a gap in the study of PPPs by integrating literature on public involvement and PPPs to develop a theoretical framework for guiding public involvement in PPPs. This framework can both explain why public involvement challenges in PPPs persist and present strategies for improving information dissemination and consultation in these projects. Research has long acknowledged the unique challenges of public involvement in transportation projects delivered through PPPs (Chen et al., 2013; Haughton & Mcmanus, 2012; Hayllar & Wettenhall, 2010; Song et al., 2018; Zhang & Ali Soomro, 2016). Scholars have also emphasized the growing need to both disseminate and gather information at various stages of PPPs (De Schepper et al., 2014; El-Gohary et al., 2006; Reynaers & Grimmelikhuijsen, 2015; Shaoul et al., 2010). However, further research can speak to how sequencing and configuring participation can address such informational requirements in PPPs.
This research also sheds new light on technology integration in public involvement (Mergel, 2013; Newell et al., 2008; Pantic et al., 2021) by identifying areas where virtual public involvement (VPI) may complement or outperform traditional participatory methods in PPPs (Chassin et al., 2022). Digital engagement has long been integral to public involvement (Evans-Cowley & Griffin, 2012; Russell & Herzer, 2002; Staffans et al., 2020) and the COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the shift from in-person meetings to virtual community engagement (Floress & Cohen, 2022; Pantic et al., 2021). VPI practices are not mandated by law, however, and remain subject to the discretion of public managers (Slotterback, 2010; Yang & Callahan, 2007). Even with prior research calling attention to the use of digital tools in PPPs (Torvinen & Ulkuniemi, 2016), research is lacking on the implications of VPI innovations for the informational needs of these projects (Torvinen & Ulkuniemi, 2016).
Analysis of the World Bank’s Private Participation in Infrastructure (PPI) database indicates that nearly 5% of PPP infrastructure projects have been canceled since the 1980s (Li & Wang, 2023; Ruiz Díaz, 2020; Song et al., 2018), with insufficient information disclosure and inadequate community consultation frequently cited as contributing factors (De Schepper et al., 2014; El-Gohary et al., 2006; Reynaers & Grimmelikhuijsen, 2015; Shaoul et al., 2010). In response, multilateral development organizations have increasingly called for research to enhance democratic accountability and community representation in PPPs (OECD, 2007; Romero & Ravenscroft, 2018; UNECE, 2007). By addressing these persistent problems for PPPs (Boyer et al., 2015; Li et al., 2005a; Siemiatycki & Farooqi, 2012), this research can improve perceptions of both project legitimacy and the long-term accountability that may underlie them.
This paper proceeds as follows. A first section reviews the public involvement literature on the challenges of information distribution and consultation in PPPs, before a second section draws from that literature to assess techniques for sequencing and structuring engagement before design options are finalized. The third section introduces configurations of public involvement modalities—including emerging technological tools—to develop a framework of engagement techniques applicable across the phases of project development. The final section summarizes the theoretical and practical contributions of the research, highlighting gaps and tensions addressed by the proposed framework and outlining directions for future research to strengthen public engagement in PPPs.
Characteristics and Challenges of Public Involvement in PPPs
Potential Public Involvement Challenges in PPPs
The “public” here refers to any non-governmental actors “(1) who may have information relevant to the issue at hand, and/or (2) whose participation in decision making is necessary to assure successful implementation.” Following Thomas (2012, pp. 146–147): Those actors can encompass a wide array of groups, including traditional interest groups (e.g., business lobbies, labor unions), program beneficiaries, consumer and environmental groups, other public interest groups, residential groups (organized homeowners’ association or unorganized residents of an area), advisory groups that include representatives of any of the other groups, plus previously unorganized groups that might share an interest in the issue.
Information and Educational Components of Public Involvement (Pre-Construction)
A central challenge in the pre-construction phase of PPPs is to adequately inform and educate the public about the nature, conditions, and potential impacts of these complex projects. Misconceptions can arise from skepticism about privatization reforms (Battaglio & Legge, 2009) and related misunderstandings of the roles of private partners in PPPs (Delmon, 2010). PPPs are complex contracts that distribute technical and financial risks between a government agency and a special purpose vehicle (SPV), the private partner in a PPP, to facilitate long-term development of transportation infrastructure (Grimsey & Lewis, 2007; Hodge & Greve, 2010). The public often misunderstands contractual arrangements due to their legal and financial complexities (Coghill & Woodward, 2005; Reeves et al., 2015; Savas, 2000). Although there are varying configurations of risk allocation in PPPs (Delmon, 2010), greater delegation of responsibilities to private partners typically increases concerns that private companies may profit at the public’s expense (Kivleniece & Quelin, 2012; Ni, 2012; Roehrich & Kivleniece, 2022). Concerns about PPPs are often exacerbated by the limited transparency of these arrangements, as information disclosure is restricted to protect intellectual property and proprietary business interests (Li et al., 2005b; Liu et al., 2015; Tariq & Zhang, 2020). Private companies are not subject to the same freedom of information laws as their government counterparts, which can further compromise public understanding (Li et al., 2005b). Government leaders may also lean on commercial confidence-related provisions to withhold unfavorable information about PPPs (Haughton & Mcmanus, 2012; Siemiatycki & Farooqi, 2012), potentially resulting in “selective disclosure” of projected benefits while potential costs are obscured (Siemiatycki, 2007).
PPPs typically involve contractual commitments that bind the public to specific payment terms and service conditions extending decades into the future (Boyer et al., 2015; Chen et al., 2013). PPPs that contain toll collection, for example, often include a “non-compete clause” to protect the future earnings of private partners (Ni, 2012). Such provisions can limit traveler choices, exacerbate traffic congestion, and undermine public satisfaction (Haughton & Mcmanus, 2012).
A range of information can help counter public preconceptions about the role of private firms in PPPs by demonstrating how their involvement can advance infrastructure planning and enhance public services. Technical information, in particular, can communicate the anticipated community benefits, such as improved road safety, reduced congestion, enhanced accessibility, and integration of innovative technologies, while also clarifying the performance measures to which the project will be accountable (Amadi et al., 2018; Ismail et al., 2019; Sheppard & Beck, 2023; World Bank, 2017). Trainings and educational resources can complement public understanding of the PPP and its contributions to infrastructure development (El-Gohary et al., 2006; Henjewele et al., 2013).
Public communication in PPPs should also include a clear and accessible explanation of the rationale for selecting PPP delivery over alternative delivery mechanisms (Reynaers & Grimmelikhuijsen, 2015; Shaoul et al., 2010). Such explanations may include analyses of the costs and benefits of alternative delivery models, such as value for money (VFM) assessments or public sector comparators, to provide evidence of the PPP financial advantages (Sheppard & Beck, 2023; World Bank, 2017). Posting contract-related documents, including contract summaries, requests for proposals (RFPs) and requests for qualifications (RFQs) can also help (Valverde & Moore, 2019). Even though contract documents may be difficult for the average citizen to digest, their distribution enables other parties, such as the press and interest groups, to distill their implications for general consumption (World Bank, 2017).
Consultative Components of Public Involvement in PPPs (Pre-Construction)
The misalignment of incentives between public and private partners can complicate consultative efforts. Large-scale PPP projects enable governments to advance major projects using private financing (Feng et al., 2023) and allow private companies to secure long-term revenue streams (Hellowell et al., 2015). These incentives can encourage efforts to restrict public input in order to protect political and commercial interests (Chen et al., 2013; Hodge & Greve, 2010; Williamson & Ruming, 2019).
Nevertheless, meaningful public consultation during project planning plays a critical accountability role by ensuring that the affected community has an opportunity to influence the shape of projects (Hayllar & Wettenhall, 2010). In doing so, public involvement can move beyond questions about willingness to pay for tolls or fees, to include broader discussions about preferred project types (Chen et al., 2013; Gofen, 2015). Communicating how public preferences shape project components can alleviate public criticism, which may be expressed outside traditional public involvement and can snowball into self-organizing (Kivleniece & Quelin, 2012).
To be effective, consultation requires public input on both the technical and financial dimensions of projects (De Schepper et al., 2014; Torvinen & Ulkuniemi, 2016). Public input can inform project design around such local preferences as mobility needs, environmental goals, and aesthetic and cultural consideration, and help establish performance measures grounded in community-defined values (Ismail et al., 2019; Sheppard & Beck, 2023; Wang & Gao, 2020). Public shaping of this kind can lay the groundwork for justifying and verifying the work of project partners over the long-term horizon of most PPPs.
Even with the challenges in collecting public input on the financial aspects of PPPs (Dannin, 2011; Shaoul et al., 2010; Sheppard & Beck, 2023), the consultative process can influence such project components as non-compete clauses or toll-rates. It is critical to obtain this public input prior to the awarding of the contract for it to factor into contractual terms (Dannin, 2011; Valverde & Moore, 2019).
Information and Educational Components of Public Involvement in PPPs (Post-Construction)
Following construction, PPPs pose new challenges in keeping the public informed about project performance. These challenges stem from both limited public awareness of project achievements and the incentives that may lead private partners to prioritize operational efficiencies over the user experience. For example, reducing infrastructure aesthetics or quality may be more cost-effective for private partners than investing in innovations that improve service quality (Acerete et al., 2010; Shaoul et al., 2010; Siemiatycki, 2011; Siemiatycki & Friedman, 2012). Additionally, a lack of accurate and timely information about the project’s performance, such as traffic congestion levels, roadway safety (Shaoul et al., 2010; Wang & Lin, 2023), and environmental outcomes, can fuel public misunderstanding and frustration with the projects (Spiller, 2008).
It is critical at this stage for PPP partners to provide detailed explanations of how well the project met its objectives, especially those shaped in the earlier public consultation. Performance might be further clarified by comparing outcomes to those of projects developed through traditional procedures (Sheppard & Beck, 2023). Public faith in the project can also be enhanced by highlighting penalties associated with areas where the contractor fell short of performance objectives (Ismail et al., 2019). Disclosing any renegotiations and associated modifications to the contract can alleviate public misunderstandings and improve public perception of the government overseeing the project (World Bank, 2017). Public trust can be further enhanced by publicizing evaluations of project outcomes, ideally by independent engineers and/or auditing officials (World Bank, 2017).
Financial transparency is equally important at this stage, including how actual demand aligns with expected demand, how actual revenue aligns with expected revenue, and how the rate of toll collection aligns with expectations (World Bank, 2017). PPP contracts often include provisions for “compensation events” whereby the government must pay the contractors to utilize the roadways in ways that could disrupt revenue generation, such as for street repair, festival use, holidays or related events (Dannin, 2011). Public disclosure here can shed light on actual taxpayer commitments to private profits (Shaoul et al., 2010).
Consultative Components of Public Involvement in PPPs (Post-Construction)
After construction, PPPs pose additional challenges in identifying and responding to evolving public concerns, as when PPPs impose tolls on roadways that were previously free to use. In some cases, opposition to tolls has prompted community members to create an informal handbook with suggestions for how to avoid them (Chen et al., 2013). Citizens may self-organize through online platforms or social media to share their concerns and exert pressure on project authorities (Bakht & El-Diraby, 2014; Chen et al., 2013; Chilvers & Longhurst, 2016). Activist groups often play a key role here by helping to mobilize and coordinate public opposition (Chilvers & Longhurst, 2016; Kivleniece & Quelin, 2012). When citizens feel project authorities fail to respond to their concerns, they may appeal to the press or reach out to elected leaders (Chen et al., 2013). In some cases, users have boycotted toll roads in protest (Chen et al., 2013; Haughton & Mcmanus, 2012; Zhang & Ali Soomro, 2016), as has happened in the United Kingdom (Zhang & Ali Soomro, 2016), Australia (Haughton & Mcmanus, 2012) and China (Chen et al., 2013). Public frustration has also been directed at PPP non-compete clauses which can exacerbate congestion by limiting the development of competing roadways (Haughton & Mcmanus, 2012; Li et al., 2005b).
Alleviating public concerns in the operational phase requires mechanisms for collecting citizen perceptions. Effective communications with the public cannot only help justify the PPP model and the selection of specific partners, but also reinforce public trust in government (Amirkhanyan et al., 2024; O'Leary et al., 2020). Moreover, members of the community can also express their views on how well project goals are being met (de Graaff et al., 2024), serving an accountability function through their feedback (McCubbins & Schwartz, 1984; Spiller, 2008).
Collecting citizen input on technical project components requires attention to user experiences, including public views on issues like traffic congestion, safety, and road quality (Amadi et al., 2018) as well as environmental impacts. Central to these efforts is determining public awareness of service conditions and their perceptions of the quality of transportation services (Amadi et al., 2018; De Schepper et al., 2014). Related issues may include citizen views on how noncompete clauses may contribute to traffic congestion (Dannin, 2011; Haughton & Mcmanus, 2012). The technical components of the projects are often easier to achieve than the financial ones, so technical issues may prove less controversial than the financial (Shaoul et al., 2010). Understanding the public’s perspectives on achievement of technical goals is essential, however, as positive views toward such conditions can alleviate public concerns around financial components (Shaoul et al., 2010).
Citizen feedback on the financial project conditions is also essential, yet too often neglected (Amadi et al., 2018; Ambituuni, 2025; Dannin, 2011; El-Gohary et al., 2006). It is therefore necessary to establish systems for collecting and responding to citizen views on the project costs and the associated obligations of government, including compensation events, guarantees, and direct payments for services (availability payments). Related matters may include public views on the performance bonuses or penalties issued to contractors, and the ways that contractor performance is shown to outperform government-administered projects.
Public Involvement Literature and Consulting the Public
The public involvement literature offers valuable insights for addressing the informational challenges associated with PPPs, particularly regarding the sequencing and structuring of consultations with the public. A key lesson from this body of this work is the importance of soliciting community input early in the process, before design specifications are finalized (Bailey et al., 2007; Fotaki, 2011; Grossardt et al., 2003). Early engagement allows citizens to define key project features, rather than only react to pre-determined options defined by someone else (Banerjee et al., 2006; Rowe & Frewer, 2000).
Critical points for soliciting input include the time prior to contract award and again before the completion of construction and commencement of service delivery. Each of these stages marks a point after which design modifications become increasingly difficult to incorporate (World Bank, 2017). An associated challenge involves reconciling community perspectives with the technical, financial, and political constraints faced by public agencies and private partners. Negotiation here is likely to be more effective when project planners clearly identify and communicate any non-negotiable project conditions prior to public consultation (Griffin & Jiao, 2019; Hayllar & Wettenhall, 2010; Song et al., 2018). Clarifying these constraints at the outset helps manage expectations and provides a transparent framework for engagement (Thomas, 2012, p. 139). Once design options have been developed with feedback from the public, the participating public is more likely to feel a sense of ownership and buy-in (Bailey et al., 2007). It is also essential to provide a clear explanation of how these alternatives reflect expressed public preferences (Bailey et al., 2015).
The success of consultation also depends on the depth of engagement (Arnstein, 1969; Fung, 2004, 2010) and the meaningful incorporation of citizen perspectives in project designs (Thomas, 2013). Achieving this level of engagement requires sustained social interactions between the community and government (Griffin & Jiao, 2019), enabling the integration of top-down information provided by planners with bottom-up information from the public (Bailey et al., 2015; Griffin & Jiao, 2019). Equally important is ensuring that feedback is gathered from a broad and diverse cross-section of the community to accurately capture the full range of public preferences. This balance between engagement depth and stakeholder representation is illustrated in Figure 1: Balancing Depth and Representation in Public Consultation. Balancing Depth and Representation in Public Consultation
Ensuring the representativeness of public consultations remains a significant challenge (Bailey et al., 2015; Camay et al., 2012; Pantic et al., 2021). To enhance representativeness, planners must “undertake aggressive recruitment of representatives of relevant publics,” which requires both careful identification of target groups and the deployment of diverse techniques to ensure their voices are heard (Thomas, 2012, pp. 150-152). Addressing structural barriers is also critical. This includes overcoming digital divides that may limit the participation of underserved populations (Camay et al., 2012; Floress & Cohen, 2022; Griffin & Jiao, 2019), reducing the geographical distance to in-person events to enhance accessibility (Chassin et al., 2022), and minimizing scheduling and other obstacles to participation (Bailey et al., 2015; Evans-Cowley & Griffin, 2012).
Differentiating Traditional From Virtual Public Involvement (VPI) Modalities
The combined needs for transmitting and soliciting information and in broadening consultation point to the importance of effectively aligning participation modes with those goals (Camay et al., 2012; Floress & Cohen, 2022; Flyvbjerg, 2004; Nyerges & Aguirre, 2011). Given the factors that make PPPs more politically volatile than other delivery mechanisms (Lee et al., 2018; Ni, 2012; Riccio, 2014; Romero & Ravenscroft, 2018), effective engagement requires innovation beyond standard planning processes (Barnes & Langworthy, 2004). It is therefore imperative to assess the potential contribution of various participation modalities, including those involving VPI.
For example, VPI offers a wide array of modalities that can contribute to public engagement in PPPs (Pantic et al., 2021), including social media, virtual meetings, GIS-related technologies, interactive visualizations, and emerging artificial intelligence applications (Camay et al., 2012; Floress & Cohen, 2022; Steinmetz et al., 2021; Stewart et al., 2018). VPI approaches can either supplement or substitute for more traditional engagement formats, such as public meetings and community forums (Bakht & El-Diraby, 2014; Camay et al., 2012; Chen et al., 2013; Ebdon & Franklin, 2004; Song et al., 2018).
Information and Educational Components of Public Involvement
A range of traditional dissemination tools can help address preconceived notions about the role of private partners in PPPs. These include press releases and media outreach that aim at generating broader press coverage of the project (Laurian & Shaw, 2009), as well as dedicated project websites that provide accessible information on project concepts and elements that are open to public influence (Ebbers et al., 2008; Thomas & Streib, 2003; USDOT, 2002). Project brochures serve a complementary function by providing information on preliminary plans for a proposed project (Laurian & Shaw, 2009; Nabatchi, 2012). In addition to providing background information, these tools can raise awareness about consultation processes and help to expand avenues for community engagement (Grossardt et al., 2003). Such tools could prove important in distributing both technical and financial information about PPPs, as many U.S. states mandate the development of project website to host fundamental project information for PPPs (World Bank, 2017).
Virtual modalities, such as social media, can enhance traditional information dissemination by offering complementary content alongside mainstream news coverage (Williamson & Ruming, 2019) and by enabling more rapid distribution of materials across social networks (Camay et al., 2012; Steinmetz et al., 2021). Transportation agencies often possess the capacity for these forms of information broadcasting (Camay et al., 2012; Meijer & Torenvlied, 2014; Mergel, 2012). Experience from previous PPP projects underscores the importance of these tools for correcting public misconceptions and increasing community engagement. AI can also be employed through chatbots that process citizens’ information and service requests to (Chen et al., 2023; Yigitcanlar et al., 2024). The chatbots may be able to “understand client inquiries and respond automatically” to clarify meeting options and availability (Senadheera et al., 2024, p. 2). By expanding the reach of project information, such tools can bridge knowledge gaps and promote more inclusive participation than traditional methods alone.
Some virtual technologies can help to overcome the common challenges of explaining transportation designs in ways accessible to the public. Geographic information systems (GIS) have been utilized since the 1990s in public involvement (Zhong et al., 2008) for their ability to overlay a spatial dimension to design options (Depietri et al., 2021). Project websites can feature virtual maps that allow citizens to highlight design elements they view as desirable or undesirable (Griffin & Jiao, 2019). Enhanced visualizations through augmented reality (AR) or virtual reality (VR) can also provide more realistic depictions of proposed transportation improvements. 3D visualizations provide an immersive “virtual landscape” that visually integrates proposed facilities with their existing surroundings (Ehab et al., 2023). Some applications allow citizens to see virtual renderings of infrastructure plans overlaid on “real” geographical plans (Chassin et al., 2022) as through headsets that provide a fully immersed virtual reality (Ehab et al., 2023; Hanzl, 2007). Some smartphone camera apps enable users to visualize proposed designs while they are in the project’s proposed environment (Wang & Lin, 2023). An important caveat to these approaches is that they are most effective after design options have been introduced. Employed too early in the process, they may unintentionally heighten citizen concerns that project concepts are being imposed without meaningful input.
Another important qualification in the use of these technologies is that they are generally more effective at enhancing public understanding of technical than financial project aspects. Visualization tools excel at illustrating complex engineering designs, such as proposed road enhancements (e.g., lane expansions, exit ramp creations), right-of-way boundaries, and/or changes to pedestrian and rail alignments. They are not designed to convey financial elements, underscoring the need for complementary strategies to communicate such information.
Consultative Components of Public Involvement in PPPs
Traditional, in-person consultation in physical “brick and mortar” venues remains a cornerstone of public involvement (Bakht & El-Diraby, 2014). Such formats are likely essential for achieving the depth of engagement required to reconcile local perspectives with expert and institutional priorities in PPPs. They can also counter perceptions that project designs are being advanced without genuine community input.
In-person meetings continue to be among the most widely used tools in public participation processes, including such vehicles as public hearings, consensus-building conferences, citizen advisory committees, citizen panels and juries, focus groups, and project open houses (Ebdon & Franklin, 2004; Renn, 2015; Rowe & Frewer, 2000). They facilitate direct interactions that can clarify misunderstandings that are often difficult to address in virtual settings (Floress & Cohen, 2022). Additionally, their less structured nature permits informal “side conversations,” which can yield deeper insights into sociocultural contexts and foster more meaningful engagement (Pantic et al., 2021). Within public meetings, for example, community preferences can be unveiled when attendees are: divided into small groups, with each group charged to discuss and report back to the full group on the meeting’s central issue. This approach achieves the goal of face-to-face small-group discussions nested in the context of a much larger group (Thomas, 2012, p. 178)
Public participation geographical information systems (PPGIS) can be applied to public meetings by having community members assign comments to geographical renderings of project plans, specifying their desired amenities such as public use spaces, pedestrian zones or bike zones (Floreddu & Francesca, 2014; Ganapati, 2011; Griffin & Jiao, 2019; Zhong et al., 2008). The scope and scale of in-person events typically support the reconciliation of community differences, the alignment of expert and local perspectives, and the provision of multiple opportunities to exchange both technical and financial information.
Despite the potential of in-person venues to enhance engagement, they also pose barriers to participation, barriers that virtual public involvement can help to mitigate. For example, engaging the public through social media can enable participation from persons who are unable to attend in-person events (Depietri et al., 2021; O’Leary et al., 2020). This may be particularly attractive to younger people who are less likely to participate in traditional participation formats (Steinmetz et al., 2021) as well as to people with mobility-related challenges or other accessibility barriers (Chen et al., 2013).
Social media can improve citizen participation by connecting with citizens through widely used online platforms. In the U.S., a majority of residents report using either or both YouTube and Facebook social media platforms, making social media a potentially valuable tool for reaching diverse audiences (Camay et al., 2012; Gottfried, 2024). These platforms enable participation in virtual meetings unconstrained by geographic location (Krykewycz et al., 2011; Slotterback, 2010). While limited access to the internet and personal computing devices can restrict some individuals’ participation (Clark et al., 2013), the widespread use of smartphones suggests a more accessible means of engagement for many communities. In addition, incorporating traditional telephone calls alongside other virtual platforms can further expand participation opportunities, particularly for persons uncomfortable with newer digital tools (Floress & Cohen, 2022).
Social media reduces costs for participation and enables more flexible and informal modes of generating citizen input (Brabham, 2009; Evans-Cowley & Griffin, 2012; Newell et al., 2008). One result is “micro-participation” that can be more accessible to time-constrained individuals (Chilvers & Longhurst, 2016; Evans-Cowley & Griffin, 2012). Moreover, the anonymity often afforded by digital platforms may encourage individuals to voice opinions on sensitive issues they might be hesitate to express in public forums (Mattila & Nummi, 2022). GIS can also be integrated with social media to enable users to comment and even cast votes on design options (Chassin et al., 2022), thus broadening avenues for citizen input. Enhanced visualization can also reveal citizen preferences for technical design concepts, like the “percentage of a site with covered buildings…the amount of green space in an area…[or] the length of street walls among buildings in respect to the length of a side block” (Wang & Lin, 2023, pp. 6–7). Citizen-generated feedback displayed through these mediums can then be analyzed through AI. For example, Natural Language Processing (NLP) can identify common themes by breaking down individual phrases and words (Senadheera et al., 2024).
Actively monitoring and soliciting feedback from citizen stakeholders through online communication channels in a timely and transparent manner (Bakht & El-Diraby, 2014; Mattila & Nummi, 2022) can significantly expand opportunities for gauging public attitudes toward PPPs. Online surveys and other web-based interfaces can generate useful understanding of views towards projects in operation (Ismail et al., 2019; Sheppard & Beck, 2023). Government can enhance such efforts by providing email addresses and online portals where citizens can submit project-related concerns (West, 2006). Moreover, AI tools, such as chatbots, can enhance engagement by facilitating two-way communication and collecting citizen input in real time (Chen et al., 2023; Senadheera et al., 2024). These systems can broaden access to consultation processes, lower the effort required to participate, and increase the likelihood that citizens feel heard.
An important qualification to the use of VPI tools is that the very mechanisms that broaden participation may simultaneously constrain the depth of interaction by limiting the scope of public exchange. While VPI can enhance access and engagement, it may fall short in facilitating rich deliberation because social media platforms typically limit the number of comments/characters per post (Steinmetz et al., 2021), thereby restricting the depth of public input. Additionally, the creation of a social media page or post does not guarantee meaningful engagement (Agostino & Arnaboldi, 2016) since effective facilitation of virtual meetings requires skills that may not be available within public agencies (Barry et al., 2024). Building consensus and reconciling divergent community perspectives faces greater obstacles in virtual settings than in in-person forums where informal interactions and nonverbal cues support deeper understanding. These limitations demonstrate the importance of combining virtual and in-person methods to achieve both inclusivity and deliberative depth in engagement around PPPs.
Developing an Integrated Framework of Improving Public Involvement in PPPs
By integrating insights from the literatures on PPPs and public involvement, this research contributes to the longstanding inquiry into how public involvement modalities can be aligned with pre-existing goals (Floress & Cohen, 2022; Flyvbjerg, 2004; Grossardt et al., 2003; Pantic et al., 2021). Specifically, it identifies configurations of public involvement approaches that are particularly well-suited to addressing the unique informational needs in both the pre-construction and post-construction phases of PPPs (see Figure 2: Framework of Public Involvement in PPPs During Pre-Construction and Post-Construction Phases). Framework of Public Involvement in PPPs During Pre-construction and Post-construction Phases
Regarding our first research question, we see persuasive arguments for the potential for VPI to advance informing and educating the public as well as hearing from the public about PPPs. Digital engagement tools that support visualization and geolocation of project plans can mitigate misinterpretations about the technical aspects of PPPs and their impacts on the community. Additionally, social media platforms and related digital content can improve public comprehension of project components and help dispel misunderstandings about the role of private partners in infrastructure delivery. Such approaches are likely to be critical in overcoming preconceived notions about privatization (Battaglio & Legge, 2009) and the roles of private companies in PPPs (Kang & Vedlitz, 2024). Our first proposition, therefore, emphasizes the potential for VPI to reduce information asymmetries between planners and the public during the development of PPPs. P1: Digital engagement tools are likely to improve public understanding of PPPs by addressing common misperceptions about private roles in infrastructure delivery and by mitigating the institutional barriers to information disclosure.
The potential contributions to public understanding depend, however, on when they are introduced. Digital tools that improve comprehension of existing plans are likely to be most effective when deployed after a degree of consensus around community priorities has been established and incorporated into design alternatives. Introducing these tools before engaging the public in the formulation of project goals and design could potentially diminish confidence in the project’s utility and reinforce perceptions that design decisions primarily serve external interests. This leads to our second proposition as an important qualification to the potential benefits of VPI for public engagement in PPPs: P2: Digital engagement tools that enhance public comprehension of infrastructure designs are most effective when introduced after design elements have been shaped with community engagement. The success of VPI depends on its ability to link technical features to goals and priorities established through community consultation, thereby avoiding the perception that plans conflict with local values.
Digital technologies such as GIS and advanced visualization platforms offer useful enhancements to how the public can engage and understand the technical components offered through PPPs, but they remain limited in their ability to improve understanding of the financial intricacies of PPPs. This points to the need for contract disclosure that includes both legal texts and plain-language explanations of financial obligations. Supplementary material may include executive summaries, schedules of payments, and scenario-based illustrations of community impacts, leading to this third proposition: P3: While VPI technologies can help citizens comprehend the design characteristics of PPPs, they offer limited utility for communicating financial details. Public disclosure of a wide range of financial and contract materials are therefore also necessary to ensure the public understands a PPP’s financial implications.
Following the completion of infrastructure projects and the commencement of service delivery, digital engagement tools become essential for disseminating information on project performance and monitoring public sentiment. Since it is unrealistic to expect the public to independently seek out performance data, a proactive communication strategy is necessary to convey the achievements and features of the project. Social media and related digital platforms are especially valuable here given their utility for public discourse and the window they can provide to changes in public sentiments, suggesting our fourth proposition: P4: Social media outreach and monitoring, supported by targeted digital content, are essential tools for enhancing public understanding of the benefits associated with project services and for tracking shifts in public sentiment.
As for our second research question on the potential for digital engagement to enhance traditional approaches to public involvement, the evidence indicates that while VPI can broaden participation, it may constrain the depth of interactions with the public and limit the extent to which local preferences can be incorporated into infrastructure designs. Achieving the depth of interaction required to incorporate public views into technical designs calls for in-person, professionally facilitated discussions in traditional forums, leading to our fifth proposition: P5: While VPI can significantly expand the reach of community engagement, achieving the depth of mutual understanding needed to integrate local priorities into PPP design requires in-person engagement. Traditional formats such as workshops, design charrettes, and public hearings remain essential for building public trust.
Conclusions
While prior research has emphasized the need for public debate in the planning of PPP transportation projects (Hayllar & Wettenhall, 2010), this study underscores the critical importance of convening discussions with the public before any plans are drafted (Griffin & Jiao, 2019; Hayllar & Wettenhall, 2010; Li & Wang, 2023; Rowe & Gammack, 2004; Song et al., 2018). Given the potential tradeoff between public consultation and timely project delivery (Sheppard & Beck, 2023), governments should restrict public involvement to those mechanisms that yield significant public input and likely public support. Mechanisms lacking that yield should be jettisoned once their marginal value is evident.
At the same time, planners will benefit from realizing that “timely project delivery” rests on both (1) as efficient a decision-making process as possible and, once the decision is made, (2) as efficient an implementation process as possible. Since additional time taken to involve the public could reduce the time needed for implementation, a lengthier involvement process that wins public support and thereby facilitates implementation will usually be preferable to a shorter process that does not win that support. Put differently, short-circuiting public involvement to achieve timely project delivery could have the opposite effect by catalyzing public opposition that delays or paralyzes implementation (Thomas, 2012, p. 141).
The findings of this study hold practical implications for policymakers, government agencies, and PPP practitioners seeking to improve public involvement. During the planning of PPPs, VPI can reduce information asymmetries by accelerating information dissemination and communication of technical complexities. In turn, GIS-based applications and immersive visualizations can enhance public understanding of designs and their impacts, while AI-powered chatbots can respond to individual questions. Social media engagement can also broaden participation by reducing the costs of participation and by diversifying avenues for gaining feedback. Natural language processing technologies can then help to synthesize qualitative feedback.
During the project delivery of PPPs, VPI can enhance public understanding of goal attainment as citizens directly experience project outcomes. Social media enable public engagement in real time, including eliciting views on project milestones. Mechanisms such as comment portals, linked email addresses, and online surveys can also assist stakeholders in sharing their impressions of infrastructure quality. AI-powered chatbots can elicit timely responses to public inquiries, responses that natural language processing tools can synthesize.
The findings of this study also suggest some promising directions for future research. First, scholars could investigate how enhanced citizen engagement, particularly through virtual tools, contributes to private partners’ environmental, social, and governance outcomes as well as broader objectives such as profitability, sustainability, and reputational gains (Berg et al., 2022; Fatemi et al., 2018). Second, while this study focuses on transportation infrastructure, additional research is needed on how public involvement innovations influence PPPs in the social infrastructure sector, such as healthcare, education, and housing. Third, future studies could further examine the equity implications of VPI and how alternative strategies, such as public broadband initiatives or partnerships with community-based organizations, could reduce the digital divide. As challenges related to community consultation and public understanding in PPPs persist, this research offers lessons to guide future scholarship and practice in identifying and addressing the needs of diverse communities throughout the development of PPPs.
Footnotes
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Correction (November 2025):
The alignment and text in Table 1 have been updated since the article’s original publication.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.