ADHD and ODD are commonly co-occurring, but often studied individually. This study evaluated common trajectories of these disorders and explored how they co-develop in early childhood.
Method:
Community parents (N = 273) completed online surveys about their 2-year-old. Children’s inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity, and oppositional defiant disorder symptoms over 2 years were examined using latent class, dual trajectory, and cross-lagged analyses.
Results:
Most children followed low symptom trajectories. A small portion showed high, moderate, or increasing trajectories. The hyperactive/impulsive domain of ADHD showed a declining symptoms group. Children in high ODD groups were likely to be in high ADHD symptom groups; the converse was true but probabilities were lower. Hyperactive/impulsive symptoms predicted ODD symptoms across time, more than vice versa.
Conclusion:
The study extends the small body of literature assessing early development of ADHD and ODD. Findings suggest that earlier intervention for symptoms of ADHD may mitigate risk of developing ODD.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association.
2.
AsparouhovT.MuthénB. (2014). Auxiliary variables in mixture modeling: Three-step approaches using Mplus. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 21(3), 329–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2014.915181
3.
BarkleyR. A. (1998). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment. Guilford.
4.
BornovalovaM. A.HicksB. M.IaconoW. G.McGueM. (2010). Familial transmission and heritability of childhood disruptive disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 1066–1074. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09091272
5.
BrownH. R.HarveyE. A. (2019). Psychometric properties of ADHD symptoms in toddlers. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 48(3), 423–439. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2018.1485105
6.
BurkeJ. D.LoeberR.LaheyB. B.RathouzP. J. (2005). Developmental transitions among affective and behavioral disorders in adolescent boys. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(11), 1200–1210. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.00422.x
7.
BurnsG. L.WalshJ. A. (2002). The influence of ADHD–hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms on the development of oppositional defiant disorder symptoms in a 2-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30(3), 245–256. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015102812958
8.
BusemeyerJ. R.DiederichA. (2014). Estimation and testing of computational psychological models In: GlimcherP. W.FehrE. (Eds.), Neuroeconomics (pp. 49–61). Academic Press.
9.
CampbellS. B.SzumowskiE. K.EwingL. J.GluckD. S.BreauxA. M. (1982). A multidimensional assessment of parent-identified behavior problem toddlers. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 10(4), 569–591. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00920755
10.
CollinsL. M.SchaferJ. L.KamC. M. (2001). A comparison of inclusive and restrictive strategies in modern missing data procedures. Psychological Methods, 6(4), 330–351. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.6.4.330
11.
DemmerD. H.HooleyM.SheenJ.McGillivrayJ. A.LumJ. A. (2017). Sex differences in the prevalence of oppositional defiant disorder during middle childhood: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 45(2), 313–325. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0170-8
12.
DuPaulG. J.ReidR.AnastopoulosA. D.LambertM. C.WatkinsM. W.PowerT. J. (2016). Parent and teacher ratings of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms: Factor structure and normative data. Psychological Assessment, 28(2), 214–225. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000166
13.
EliaJ.AmbrosiniP.BerrettiniW. (2008). ADHD characteristics: I. Concurrent co-morbidity patterns in children & adolescents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 2(1), 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/1753-2000-2-15
14.
Friedman-WeienethJ. L.DoctoroffG. L.HarveyE. A.GoldsteinL. H. (2009). The disruptive behavior rating scale-parent version (DBRS-PV): Factor analytic structure and validity among young preschool children. Journal of Attention Disorders, 13(1), 42–55. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054708322991
15.
GalánC. A.WangF. L.ShawD. S.ForbesE. E. (2019). Early childhood trajectories of conduct problems and hyperactivity/attention problems: Predicting adolescent and adult antisocial behavior and internalizing problems. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2018.1534206
16.
GreeneR. W.BiedermanJ.ZerwasS.MonuteauxM. C.GoringJ. C.FaraoneS. V. (2002). Psychiatric comorbidity, family dysfunction, and social impairment in referred youth with oppositional defiant disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159(7), 1214–1224. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.159.7.1214
HamakerE. L.KuiperR. M.GrasmanR. P. (2015). A critique of the cross-lagged panel model. Psychological Methods, 20, 102–116. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038889
19.
HarveyE. A.BreauxR. P.Lugo-CandelasC. I. (2016). Early development of comorbidity between symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 125(2), 154. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000090
20.
HarveyE. A.Lugo-CandelasC. I.BreauxR. P. (2014). Longitudinal changes in individual symptoms across the preschool years in children with ADHD. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 44(4), 580–594. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2014.886253
21.
HuijbregtsS. C.SéguinJ. R.ZoccolilloM.BoivinM.TremblayR. E. (2007). Associations of maternal prenatal smoking with early childhood physical aggression, hyperactivity-impulsivity, and their co-occurrence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35(2), 203–215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-006-9073-4
22.
HutchingsJ.GriffithN.BywaterT.WilliamsM. E. (2017). Evaluating the incredible years toddler parenting programme with parents of toddlers in disadvantaged (flying start) areas of Wales. Child Care Health and Development, 43(1), 104–113. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12415
23.
JesterJ. M.NiggJ. T.BuuA.PuttlerL. I.GlassJ. M.HeitzegM. M.FitzgeraldH. E.ZuckerR. A. (2008). Trajectories of childhood aggression and inattention/hyperactivity: Differential effects on substance abuse in adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(10), 1158–1165. https://doi.org/10.1097/chi.0b013e3181825a4e
24.
KaiserN. M.McBurnettK.PfiffnerL. J. (2011). Child ADHD severity and positive and negative parenting as predictors of child social functioning: Evaluation of three theoretical models. Journal of Attention Disorders, 15(3), 193–203. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054709356171
25.
KeenanK.BoeldtD.ChenD.CoyneC.DonaldR.DuaxJ.HartK.PerrottJ.StricklandJ.DanisB.HillC.DavisS.KampaniS.HumphriesM. (2011). Predictive validity of DSM-IV oppositional defiant and conduct disorders in clinically referred preschoolers. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 52(1), 47–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02290.x
26.
KlineR. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). The Guilford Press.
27.
McGoeyK. E.DuPaulG. J.HaleyE.SheltonT. L. (2007). Parent and teacher ratings of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in preschool: The ADHD rating scale-IV preschool version. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 29(4), 269–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-007-9048-y
28.
MurrayA. L.HallH. A.SpeyerL. G.CarterL.MirmanD.CayeA.RohdeL. (2021). Developmental trajectories of ADHD symptoms in a large population-representative longitudinal study. Psychological Medicine. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291721000349
29.
MuthénL. K.MuthénB. O. (1998–2017). Mplus: Statistical analysis with latent variables: User’s guide (8th ed.). Muthén & Muthén.
30.
NaginD. S. (1999). Analyzing developmental trajectories: A semiparametric, group-based approach. Psychological Methods, 4(2), 139–157. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989x.4.2.139
31.
NaginD. S.TremblayR. E. (2001). Analyzing developmental trajectories of distinct but related behaviors: A group-based method. Psychological Methods, 6(1), 18–34. https://doi.org/10.I037//1082-989X.6.U8
32.
NelsonT.EastP.DelvaJ.LozoffB.GahaganS. (2019). Children’s inattention and hyperactivity, mother’s parenting, and risk behaviors in adolescence: A 10-year longitudinal study of Chilean children. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 40(4), 249–256. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0000000000000661
33.
NylundK. L.AsparouhovT.MuthénB. O. (2007). Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling: A Monte Carlo simulation study. Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal, 14(4), 535–569. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510701575396
34.
PetitclercA.BoivinM.DionneG.ZoccolilloM.TremblayR. E. (2009). Disregard for rules: The early development and predictors of a specific dimension of disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 50(12), 1477–1484. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02118.x
35.
PierceE. W.EwingL. J.CampbellS. B. (1999). Diagnostic status and symptomatic behavior of hard-to-manage preschool children in middle childhood and early adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 28(1), 44–57. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp2801_4
36.
RheeS. H.WillcuttE. G.HartmanC. A.PenningtonB. F.DeFriesJ. C. (2008). Test of alternative hypotheses explaining the comorbidity between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and conduct disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(1), 29–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9157-9
37.
RomanoE.TremblayR. E.FarhatA.CôtéS. (2006). Development and prediction of hyperactive symptoms from 2 to 7 years in a population-based sample. Pediatrics, 117(6), 2101–2110.
38.
SallaJ.MichelG.PingaultJ. B.LacourseE.PaquinS.GaléraC.FalissardB.BoivinM.TremblayR. E.CôtéS. M. (2016). Childhood trajectories of inattention-hyperactivity and academic achievement at 12 years. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 25, 1195–1206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-016-0843-4
39.
SchleiderJ. L.WeiszJ. R. (2015). Using mechanical Turk to study family processes and youth mental health: A test of feasibility. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(11), 3235–3246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0126-6
40.
SciuttoM. J.NolfiC. J.BluhmC. (2004). Effects of child gender and symptom type on referrals for ADHD by elementary school teachers. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 12(4), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1177/10634266040120040501
41.
ShawD. S.LacourseE.NaginD. S. (2005). Developmental trajectories of conduct problems and hyperactivity from ages 2 to 10. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 46(9), 931–942. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00390.x
42.
ShinT.DavisonM. L.LongJ. D. (2017). Maximum likelihood versus multiple imputation for missing data in small longitudinal samples with nonnormality. Psychological Methods, 22(3), 426–449. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000094
43.
ThoemmesF.MacKinnonD. P.ReiserM. R. (2010). Power analysis for complex mediational designs using Monte Carlo methods. Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal, 17(3), 510–534. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2010.489379
44.
VergunstF.TremblayR. E.GaleraC.NaginD.VitaroF.BoivinM.CôtéS. M. (2019). Multi-rater developmental trajectories of hyperactivity-impulsivity and inattention symptoms from 1.5 to 17 years: A population-based birth cohort study. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 973–983. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-018-1258-1
45.
WakschlagL. S.ChoiS. W.CarterA. S.HullsiekH.BurnsJ.McCarthyK.LeibenluftE.Briggs-GowanM. J. (2012). Defining the developmental parameters of temper loss in early childhood: Implications for developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 53(11), 1099–1108. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02595.x
46.
WilloughbyM. T.PekJ.GreenbergM. T.; Family Life Project Investigators. (2012). Parent-reported attention deficit/hyperactivity symptomatology in preschool-aged children: Factor structure, developmental change, and early risk factors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40(8), 1301–1312. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-012-9641-8
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
