Objective: This study provides independent examination of the validity of the Barkley Deficits of Executive Functioning Scale–Children and Adolescents (BDEFS-CA) in a sample of children diagnosed with ADHD (n = 50) and typically developing controls (n = 50). Method: Parents of participants completed the BDEFS-CA and the Conners 3 rating scales. Validity of BDEFS-CA was examined using a confirmatory factor analysis, correlational analyses with Conners 3 ratings, and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis of diagnostic accuracy. Results: Findings support the construct, concurrent, and discriminant validity of the BDEFS-CA in a mixed sample. Conclusion: Findings provide independent examination of the validity of the BDEFS-CA as a measure of executive dysfunction and a screening tool for ADHD.
AbreuN.ArgolloN.OliveiraF.CardosoA. L.BuenoJ. L. O.XavierG. F. (2013). Semantic and phonologic verbal fluency tests for adolescents with ADHD. Clinical Neuropsychiatry—Journal of Treatment Evaluation, 10, 63-71.
2.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
3.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
4.
BanaschewskiT.Jennen-SteinmetzC.BrandeisD.BuitelaarJ. K.KuntsiJ.PoutskaL.. . . AshersonP. (2012). Neuropsychological correlates of emotional lability in children with ADHD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 1139-1148. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02596.x
5.
BarkleyR. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 65-94.
6.
BarkleyR. A. (2012a). Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale–Children and Adolescents (BDEFS-CA). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
7.
BarkleyR. A. (2012b). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. New York, NY: Guildford Press.
8.
BarkleyR. A. (2015). Executive functioning and self-regulation viewed as an extended phenotype: Implications of the theory for ADHD and its treatment. In BarkleyR. (Ed.), Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (4th ed., pp. 405-434). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
9.
BarkleyR. A.MurphyK. R. (2010). Impairment in occupational functioning and adult ADHD: The predictive utility of Executive Function (EF) ratings versus EF tests. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 25, 157-173. doi:10.1093/arclin/acq014
10.
BarkleyR. A.MurphyK. R. (2011). The nature of Executive Function (EF) deficits in daily life activities in adults with ADHD and their relationship to performance on EF tests. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 33, 137-158. doi:10.1007/s10862-011-9217-x
11.
BiedermanJ.SpencerT.LomedicoA.DayH.PettyC. R.FaraoneS. V. (2012). Deficient emotional self-regulation and pediatric attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A family risk analysis. Psychological Medicine, 42, 639-646. doi:10.1017/S0033291711001644
12.
BrownT. E. (2000). Emerging understandings of attention deficit disorders and comorbidities. In BrownT. (Ed.), Attention deficit disorders and comorbidities in children, adolescents and adults (pp. 3-55). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
13.
BrownT. E. (2005). Attention deficit disorder: The unfocused mind in children and adults. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
14.
BrownT. E. (2006). Executive functions and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Implications of two conflicting views. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 53, 35-46. doi:10.1080/10349120500510024
15.
BurgessP. W.AldermanN.ForbesC.CostelloA.CoatesM.-A.DawsonD. R.. . . ChannoS. (2006). The case for the development and use of “ecologically valid” measures of executive function in experimental and clinical neuropsychology. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 12, 194-209. doi:10.1017/S1355617706060310
16.
CastellanosF. X.Sonuga-BarkeE. J. S.MilhamM. P.TannockR. (2006). Characterizing cognition in ADHD: Beyond executive dysfunction. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10, 117-123. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2006.01.011
17.
ClaesdotterE.CervinM.AkerlundS.RastamM.LindvallM. (2018). The effects of ADHD on cognitive performance. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 72, 158-163. doi:10.1080/08039488.2017.1402951
18.
CoghillD. R.HaywardD.RhodesS. M.GrimmerC.MatthewsK. (2014). A longitudinal examination of neuropsychological and clinical functioning in boys with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Improvements in executive functioning do not explain clinical improvement. Psychological Medicine, 44, 1087-1099. doi:10.1017/S0033291713001761
19.
ConnersC. K. (2008). Conners 3rd edition manual. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.
20.
De la TorreG. G.BarrosoJ. M.Leon-CarrionJ.MestreJ. M.BozalR. G. (2015). Reaction time and attention: Toward a new standard in the assessment of ADHD? A pilot study. Journal of Attention Disorders, 19, 1074-1082. doi:10.1177/1087054712466440
21.
de MelloC. B.RossiA. S. U.CardosoT., d., S. G.RiveroT. S.de MouraL. M.. . . MuszkatM. (2013). Neuroimaging and neuropsychological analyses in a sample of children with ADHD inattentive subtype. Clinical Neuropsychiatry—Journal of Treatment Evaluation, 10(2), 45-54.
22.
DennisM.FrancisD. J.CirinoP. T.SchacharR.BarnesM. A.FletcherJ. M. (2009). Why IQ is not a covariate in cognitive studies of neurodevelopmental disorders. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15, 331-343. doi:10.1017/S1355617709090481
23.
DesmanC.PetermannF.HampelP. (2008). Deficit in response inhibition in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Impact of motivation?Child Neuropsychology, 14, 483-503. doi:10.1080/09297040701625831
24.
DudaT. A.CaseyJ. E.O’BrienA. M.FrostN.PhillipsA. M. (2019). Reduced graphomotor procedural learning in children and adolescents with ADHD. Human Movement Science, 65, 60-70.
25.
DupaulG. J.PowerT. J.AnastopoulosA. D.ReidR. (2016). ADHD Rating Scale-5 for children and adolescents: Checklists, norms, and clinical interpretation. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
26.
EdwardsM. C.GardnerE. S.ChelonisJ. J.SchulzE. G.FlakeR. A.DiazP. F. (2007). Estimates of the validity and utility of the Conners’ Continuous Performance Test in the assessment of inattentive and/or hyperactive-impulsive behaviors in children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 393-404. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9098-3
27.
Fenollar-CortésJ.Gallego-MartínezA.FuentesL. J. (2017). The role of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity in the fine motor coordination in children with ADHD. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 69, 77-84. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2017.08.003
28.
Gallego-MartínezA.Fenollar-CortésJ.García-SevillaJ. (2017). Implication of visuospatial and phonological working memory in the clinical heterogeneity of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Anales de Psicología, 34, 16-22. doi:10.6018/analesps.34.1.289671
29.
GoldbergE.PodellK. (2000). Adaptive decision making, ecological validity, and the frontal lobes. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 22, 56-68.
30.
GrissomN. M.ReyesT. M. (2019). Let’s call the whole thing off: Evaluating gender and sex differences in executive function. Neuropsychopharmacology, 44, 86-96. doi:10.1038/s41386-018-0179-5
31.
GuntherT.KonradK.De BritoS. A.Herpertz-DahlmannB.VloetT. D. (2011). Attentional functions in children and adolescents with ADHD, depressive disorders, and the comorbid condition. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 324-331. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02320.x
32.
HoogmanM.BraltenJ.HibarD. P.MennesM.ZwiersM. P.SchwerenL. S. J.. . . FrankeB. (2017). Subcortical brain volume differences in participants with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adults: A cross-sectional mega-analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry, 4, 310-319. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(17)30049-4
33.
HuL. T.BentlerP. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6, 1-55.
34.
IsquithP. K.RothR. M.GioiaG. (2013). Contribution of rating scales to the assessment of executive functions. Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 2, 125-132. doi:10.1080/21622965.2013.748389
35.
JacksonD. L.GillaspyJ. A.Purc-StephensonR. (2009). Reporting practices in confirmatory factor analysis: An overview and some recommendations. Psychological Methods, 14, 6-23. doi:10.1037/a0014694
36.
KamradtJ. M.UllspergerJ. M.NikolasM. A. (2014). Executive function assessment and adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Tasks versus ratings on the Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale. Psychological Assessment, 26, 1095-1105. doi:10.1037/pas0000006
37.
LambekR.TannockR.DalsgaardS.TrillingsgaardA.DammD.ThomsenP. H. (2011). Executive dysfunction in school-age children with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 15, 646-655. doi:10.1177/1087054710370935
38.
LebowitzM. S. (2016). Stigmatization of ADHD: A developmental review. Journal of Attention Disorders, 20, 199-205. doi:10.1177/1087054712475211
39.
LebowitzM. S.RosenthalJ. E.AhnW. (2016). Effects of biological versus psychosocial explanations on stigmatization of children with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 20, 240-250. doi:10.1177/108705471246925
40.
MacCallumR. C.BrowneM. W.SugawaraH. M. (1996). Power analysis and determination of sample size for covariance structure modeling. Psychological Methods, 1, 130-140.
41.
MakrisN.BiedermanJ.MonuteauxM. C.SeidmanL. J. (2009). Towards conceptualizing a neural systems-based anatomy of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Neuroscience, 31, 36-49. doi:10.1159/000207492
42.
PenningtonB. F.OzonoffS. (1996). Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 51-87.
43.
PievskyM. A.McGrathR. E. (2017). The neurocognitive profile of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A review of meta-analyses. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 33, 143-157. doi:10.1093/arclin/acx055
44.
RaiJ. K.AbecassisM.CaseyJ. E.FlaroL.ErdodiL. A.RothR. M. (2017). Parent rating of executive function in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: A review of the literature and new data on Aboriginal Canadian children. Child Neuropsychology, 23, 713-732. doi:10.1080/09297049.2016.1191628
45.
SattlerJ. M. (2008). Assessment of children: Cognitive foundations. San Diego, CA: Author.
46.
SchneiderH. E.LamJ. C.MahoneE. M. (2016). Sleep disturbance and neuropsychological function in young children with ADHD. Child Neuropsychology, 22, 493-506. doi:10.1080/09297049.2015.1018153
47.
ShawP.EckstrandK.SharpW.BlumenthalJ.LerchJ. P.GreensteinD.. . . RapoportJ. L. (2007). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is characterized by a delay in cortical maturation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104, 19649-19654. doi:10.1073/pnas.0707741104
48.
ShawP.GilliamM.LiverpoolM.WeddleC.MalekM.SharpW.. . . GieddJ. (2011). Cortical development in typically developing children with symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity: Support for a dimensional view of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 143-151. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10030385
49.
SowerbyP.TrippG. (2009). Evidence-based assessment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). In MatsonJ. L.AndrasikF.MatsonM. L. (Eds.), Assessing childhood psychopathology and developmental disabilities (pp. 209-240). New York, NY: Springer.
50.
ToplakM. E.BucciarelliS. M.JainU.TannockR. (2008). Executive functions: Performance-based measures and the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) in adolescents with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Child Neuropsychology, 15, 53-73. doi:10.1080/09297040802070929
51.
ToplakM. E.WestR. F.StanovichK. E. (2013). Practitioner review: Do performance-based measures and ratings of executive function assess the same construct?Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 131-143. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12001
52.
UllmanJ. B. (2001). Structural equation modeling. In TabachnickB. G.FidellL. S. (Eds.), Using multivariate statistics (4th ed., pp. 653-771). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
53.
Velez-PastranaM. C.GonzalezR. A.Rodriguez CardonaJ.Purcell BaergaP.Alicea RodriguezA.LevinF. R. (2016). Psychometric properties of the Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale: A Spanish-language version in a community sample of Puerto Rican adults. Psychological Assessment, 28, 483-498. doi:10.1037/pas0000171
54.
VloetT. D.KonradK.Herpertz-DahlmannB.PolierG. G.GuntherT. (2010). Impact of anxiety disorders on attentional functions in children with ADHD. Journal of Affective Disorders, 124, 283-290. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2009.11.017
55.
WassenbergR.HendriksenJ. G. M.HurksP. P. M.FeronF. J. M.VlesJ. S. H.JollesJ. (2010). Speed of language comprehension is impaired in ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 13, 374-385. doi:10.1177/1087054708326111
56.
WechslerD. (2003). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fourth Edition. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
57.
WeyandtL. L.GudmundsdottirB. G. (2015). Developmental and neuropsychological deficits in children with ADHD. In BarkleyR. A. (Ed.), Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (4th ed., pp. 116-139). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
58.
WillcuttE. G.DoyleA. E.NiggJ. T.FaraoneS. V.PenningtonB. F. (2005). Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analytic review. Biological Psychiatry, 53, 1336-1346. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006
59.
WintersN. C.CollettB. R.MyersK. M. (2005). Ten-year review of rating scales, VII: Scales assessing functional impairment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 309-338. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000153230.57344.cd
