Within early childhood (EC) education, a critical question lies in what classroom contexts and experiences are facilitative of children's language learning. Research suggests that not all classroom contexts are equal in supporting children's language learning and that some classroom practices may be more facilitative, or generative, than others. In this study, we use fall and spring observations of a sample of 100 U.S. EC classrooms to quantitatively describe the generativity of EC classrooms and explore how generativity varied across the school year and across activity settings. In addition, we introduce a novel measure for exploring generative language practices in EC classrooms that examines four constructs representing unique, yet related, themes of overall classroom generativity. Findings indicated substantial variation in generativity across classrooms, both overall and across activity setting, in the fall and spring and a relative lack of stability in generative practices across the year.
American Psychological Association. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association, the American Psychological Association, and the National Council on Measurement in Education.
2.
AsselM. A.LandryS. H.SwankP. R. (2008). Are early childhood classrooms preparing children to be school ready? The CIRCLE teacher behavior rating scale. In JusticeL. M.VukelichC. (Eds.), Achieving excellence in preschool literacy instruction (pp. 120–135). Guilford Press.
3.
BerkeleyS.ScanlonD.BaileyT. R.SuttonJ. C.SaccoD. M. (2020). A snapshot of RTI implementation a decade later: New picture, same story. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 53(5), 332–342. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219420915867
4.
BlockC. C.IsraelS. E. (2004). The ABCs of performing highly effective think-alouds. The Reading Teacher, 58(2), 154–167. https://doi.org/10.1598/RT.58.2.4
5.
BodrovaE.LeongD. J. (2012). Tools of the mind: Vygotskian approach to early childhood education. In RooparineJ. L.JonesJ. (Eds.), Approaches to early childhood education ((6th ed, pp. 241–260). Merrill/Prentice Hall.
6.
Bratsch-HinesM. E.BurchinalM.Peisner-FeinbergE.FrancoX. (2019). Frequency of instructional practices in rural prekindergarten classrooms and associations with child language and literacy skills. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 47(2), 74–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.10.001
7.
BuellM.HanM.VukelichC. (2017). Factors affecting variance in Classroom Assessment Scoring System scores: Season, context, and classroom composition. Early Child Development and Care, 187(11), 1635–1648. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2016.1178245
8.
CabellS. Q.DeCosterJ.LoCasale-CrouchJ.HamreB. K.PiantaR. C. (2013). Variation in the effectiveness of instructional interactions across preschool classroom settings and learning activities. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28(4), 820–830. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2013.07.007
9.
CharmazK. (2015). Grounded theory. In SmithJ.A. (Ed.), Qualitative Psychology: A Practical Guide to Research Methods (3rd ed., pp. 53–84). Sage Publications.
10.
CryerD.HarmsT.RileyC. (2015). All about the ECERS-R. Kaplan Early Learning Company.
11.
CuiJ.NatzkeL. (2021). Early childhood program participation: 2019 (NCES 2020-075REV). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2020/2020075REV.pdf
12.
CurentonS.JusticeL. (2004). African American and Caucasian preschoolers’ use of decontextualized language: Literate language features in oral narratives. Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 35(3), 240–253. https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461(2004/023)
13.
CutlerL.SchachterR. E.GabasC.PiastaS. B.PurtellK. M.HelsabeckN. P. (2023). Patterns of classroom organization in classrooms where children exhibit higher and lower language gains. Early Education and Development, 34(5), 1128–1146. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2022.2106766
14.
CuttingL. E.ScarboroughH. S. (2006). Prediction of Reading comprehension: Relative contributions of word recognition, language proficiency, and other cognitive skills can depend on how comprehension is measured. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10(3), 277–299. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr1003_5
15.
DenkerH.AtteberryA. (2024). Where has all the time gone? Describing time use in full- vs. half-day pre-kindergarten. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 68(3), 235–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2024.05.007
16.
DickinsonD. K.DarrowC. L.TinubuT. A. (2008). Patterns of teacher–child conversations in head start classrooms: Implications for an empirically grounded approach to professional development. Early Education and Development, 19(3), 396–429. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409280802065403
17.
DickinsonD. K.HoferK. G.BarnesE. M.GrifenhagenJ. F. (2014). Examining teachers’ language in Head Start classrooms from a systemic linguistics approach. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 29(3), 231–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.02.006
18.
DickinsonD. K.PorcheM. V. (2011). Relation between language experiences in preschool classrooms and children’s kindergarten and fourth-grade language and reading abilities. Child Development, 82(3), 870–886. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01576.x
19.
DickinsonD. K.SmithM. W. (1994). Long-term effects of preschool teachers’ book readings on low-income children’s vocabulary and story comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 29(2), 104–122. https://doi.org/10.2307/747807
20.
DukeN. K.CartwrightK. B. (2021). The science of reading progresses: Communicating advances beyond the simple view of reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 56(S1), S25–S44. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.411
21.
FarrowJ.WasikB. A.HindmanA. H. (2020). Exploring the unique contributions of teachers’ syntax to preschoolers’ and kindergarteners’ vocabulary learning. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 51(2), 178–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2019.08.005
22.
GandhiJ.RaverC. C.AbenavoliR. M.MorrisP. A.MeyerL. M. (2021). Variations in pre-kindergarten classroom quality ratings across the school year: Observation ratings from New York City’s pre-K for all. Early Education and Development, 32(8), 1174–1193. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2020.1829291
23.
GerdeH. K.PowellD. R. (2009). Teacher education, book-reading practices, and children’s language growth across one year of head start. Early Education and Development, 20(2), 211–237. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409280802595417
24.
GestS. D.Holland-CovielloR.WelshJ. A.Eicher-CattD. L.GillS. (2006). Language development subcontexts in head start classrooms: Distinctive patterns of teacher talk during free play, mealtime, and book reading. Early Education and Development, 17(2), 293–315. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15566935eed1702_5
25.
GoldfeldS.BeatsonR.WattsA.SnowP.GoldL.LeH. N. D.EdwardsS.ConnellJ.StarkH.ShinglesB.BarnettT.QuachJ.EadieP. (2022). Tier 2 oral language and early reading interventions for preschool to grade 2 children: A restricted systematic review. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 27(1), 65–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/19404158.2021.2011754
26.
GuilfordJ. P. (1954). Psychometric methods. McGraw Hill.
27.
HadleyE. B.BarnesE. M.HwangH. (2023). Purposes, places, and participants: A systematic review of teacher language practices and child oral language outcomes in early childhood classrooms. Early Education and Development, 34(4), 862–884. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2022.2074203
28.
HadleyE. B.BarnesE. M.WiernikB. M.RaghavanM. (2022). A meta-analysis of teacher language practices in early childhood classrooms. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 59(2), 186–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.12.002
29.
HadleyE. B.NewmanK. M.MockJ. (2020). Setting the stage for TALK: Strategies for encouraging language-building conversations. The Reading Teacher, 74(1), 39–48. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1900
30.
HarmsT.CliffordR.CryerD. (2014). Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale, 3rd Ed. (ECERS-3). Teachers College Press.
HindmanA. H.WasikB. A.BradleyD. E. (2019). How classroom conversations unfold: Exploring teacher–child exchanges during shared book reading. Early Education and Development, 30(4), 478–495. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2018.1556009
33.
HjetlandH. N.BrinchmannE. I.SchererR.HulmeC.Melby-LervågM. (2020). Preschool pathways to reading comprehension: A systematic meta-analytic review. Educational Research Review, 30, 100323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2020.100323
34.
JusticeL. M.MashburnA. J.HamreB. K.PiantaR. C. (2008). Quality of language and literacy instruction in preschool classrooms serving at-risk pupils. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 23(1), 51–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2007.09.004
35.
JusticeL. M.McGintyA. S.ZuckerT.CabellS. Q.PiastaS. B. (2013). Bi-directional dynamics underlie the complexity of talk in teacher–child play-based conversations in classrooms serving at-risk pupils. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28(3), 496–508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2013.02.005
36.
KiefferM. J.PetscherY.ProctorC. P.SilvermanR. D. (2016). Is the whole greater than the sum of its parts? Modeling the contributions of language comprehension skills to reading comprehension in the upper elementary grades. Scientific Studies of Reading, 20(6), 436–454. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2016.1214591
37.
KostelnikM. J.SodermanA. K.WhirenA. P.RupiperM. L. (2018). Developmentally appropriate curriculum: Best practices in early childhood education (7th ed.). Pearson.
38.
Language and Reading Research Consortium. (2015). The dimensionality of language ability in young children. Child Development, 86(6), 1948–1965. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12450
39.
LaveJ.WengerE. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press.
40.
Markussen-BrownJ.JuhlC. B.PiastaS. B.BlesesD.HøjenA.JusticeL. M. (2017). The effects of language- and literacy-focused professional development on early educators and children: A best-evidence meta-analysis. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 38(1), 97–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2016.07.002
41.
MascareñoM.DeunkM. I.SnowC. E.BoskerR. J. (2017). Read-alouds in kindergarten classrooms: A moment-by-moment approach to analyzing teacher–child interactions. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 25(1), 136–152. https://doi.org/10.1080/1350293X.2016.1266226
42.
MasseyS. L.PenceK. L.JusticeL. M.BowlesR. P. (2008). Educators’ use of cognitively challenging questions in economically disadvantaged preschool classroom contexts. Early Education and Development, 19(2), 340–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409280801964119
NeumanS. B.NewmanE. H.DwyerJ. (2011). Educational effects of a vocabulary intervention on preschoolers’ word knowledge and conceptual development: A cluster-randomized trial. Reading Research Quarterly, 46(3), 249–272. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.46.3.3
46.
OzverirI.HerringtonJ. (2011). Authentic activities in language learning: Bringing real world relevance to classroom activities. In Edmedia+ innovate learning (pp. 1423–1428). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education.
47.
PiantaR. C.La ParoK. M.HamreB. K. (2006). Classroom assessment scoring system: Pre-K. Center for Advanced Study of Teaching and Learning.
48.
PiastaS. B.FarleyK. S.MauckS. A.Soto RamirezP.SchachterR. E.O’ConnellA. A.JusticeL. M.SpearC. F.Weber-MayrerM. (2020). At-scale, state-sponsored language and literacy professional development: Impacts on early childhood classroom practices and children’s outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(2), 329–343. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000380
49.
PiastaS. B.JusticeL. M.O’ConnellA. A.MauckS. A.Weber-MayrerM.SchachterR. E.FarleyK. S.SpearC. F. (2017). Effectiveness of large-scale, state-sponsored language and literacy professional development on early childhood educator outcomes. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 10(2), 354–378. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2016.1270378
50.
PressleyM.YokoiL.RankinJ.Wharton-McDonaldR.MistrettaJ. (1997). A survey of the instructional practices of grade 5 teachers nominated as effective in promoting literacy. Scientific Studies of Reading, 1(2), 145–160. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr0102_3
51.
RicciardiC.ManfraL.HartmanS.BleikerC.DineheartL.WinslerA. (2021). School readiness skills at age four predict academic achievement through 5th grade. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 57(4), 110–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.05.006
52.
RogoffB. (2003). The cultural nature of human development. Oxford University Press.
53.
RoweD. W. (1989). Author/audience interaction in the preschool: The role of social interaction in literacy learning. Journal of Reading Behavior, 21(4), 311–349. https://doi.org/10.1080/10862968909547683
54.
RoweM. L. (2013). Decontextualized language input and preschoolers’ vocabulary development. Seminars in Speech and Language, 34(4), 260–266. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0033-1353444
55.
SchachterR. E.GabasC.PurtellK.PiastaS. B. (2026). Generative versus constrained contexts: Differentiating the language learning opportunities in early childhood classrooms. Literacy Research and Instruction, 65(1), 63–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/19388071.2024.2425846
56.
SeifriedJ.WuttkeE. (2010). Student errors: How teachers diagnose and respond to them. Empirical Research in Vocational Education and Training, 2(2), 147–162. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03546493
57.
SilvaM.CainK. (2015). The relations between lower and higher level comprehension skills and their role in prediction of early reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(2), 321–331. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037769
58.
SnowC. E.MatthewsT. J. (2016). Reading and language in the early grades. The Future of Children, 26(2), 57–74. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2016.0012
59.
TaylorB.PearsonD.ClarkK.WalpoleS. (2000). Effective schools and accomplished teachers: Lessons about primary grade Reading instruction in low-income schools. Elementary School Journal, 101(2), 121–165. https://doi.org/10.1086/499662
VygotskyL. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.
62.
ZuckerT. A.JusticeL. M.PiastaS. B.KaderavekJ. N. (2010). Preschool teachers’ literal and inferential questions and children’s responses during whole-class shared reading. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25(1), 65–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.07.001
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
