The threat of climate change has elicited divergent climate policy responses from the world's major oil multinationals, splitting the oil industry into two factions. This article analyzes the causes and consequences of this split in the oil industry. First, it demonstrates that oil companies made divergent assessments of the market risks and opportunities related to climate change based on the scientific networks and policy fields in which they were embedded rather than on rational economic criteria. Second, it documents that although the climate policy split in the oil industry has had few effects on oil company operations, it changes the terms of debate over profitable corporate action on climate change, with significant material consequences for climate regulation and patterns of energy production. This analysis contributes to the debate between treadmill of production and ecological modernization theorists by highlighting the midrange processes of contestation shaping the long-term environmental trajectory of capitalism.
Aaheim, A., Bartsch, U., Mabro, R., & Mueller, B. (1999). The Kyoto Protocol and its impact on fossil fuel markets. Oxford, UK: Center for International Climate and Environmental Research in Oslo andOxford Institute for Energy Studies.
2.
Agrawala, S., & Andresen, S. (1999a). Evolution of the negotiating positions of the United States in the Global Climate Change Regime (FNI Report 14/99). Lysaker, Norway: Fridtjof Nansen Institute.
3.
Agrawala, S., & Andresen, S. (1999b). Indispensability or indefensability? The United States in the climate treaty negotiations. Global Governance , 5(4), 457-482.
4.
Andersen, M.S. (2002). Ecological modernization or subversion? The effects of Europeanization on Eastern Europe. American Behavioral Scientist, 45(9), 1394-1416.
5.
Andrews, C. (1998). Environmental business strategy: Corporate leaders' perceptions. Society & Natural Resources, 11, 531-540.
6.
American Petroleum Institute. (1991). Global emissions of CO2 from petroleum sources. Washington, DC: Author.
7.
Austin, D., & Sauer, A. (2002). Changing oil: Emerging environmental risks and shareholder value in the oil and gas industry. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute.
8.
Ayres, R.U. (1994). Industrial metabolism: Theory and policy. In R. U. Ayres & U. E. Simonis (Eds.), Industrial metabolism: Restructuring for sustainable development (pp. 3-20). Tokyo, Japan: United Nations University Press.
9.
Bansal, P., & Roth, K. (2000). Why companies go green: A model of ecological responsiveness. Academy of Management Journal, 43(4), 717-736.
10.
Baylis, R., Connell, L., & Flynn, A. (1998a). Company size, environmental regulation and ecological modernization: Further analysis at the level of the firm. Business Strategy and the Environment, 7(5), 285-296.
11.
Baylis, R., Connell, L., & Flynn, A. (1998b). Sector variation and ecololgical modernization: Towards an analysis at the level of the firm. Business Strategy and the Environment, 7(3), 150-161.
12.
Berzins, A., Podolny, J., & Roberts, J. (1998). British Petroleum (B): Focus on learning (No. S-IB-16B). Palo Alto, CA: Graduate School of Business, Stanford University.
13.
Betsill, M., & Bulkeley, H. (2004). Transnational networks and global environmental governance: The cities for climate protection program. International Studies Quarterly, 48(2), 471-493.
14.
Bodansky, D. (1994). Prologue to the Climate Change Convention. In I. M. Mintzer & A. J. Leonard (Eds.), Negotiating climate change: The inside story to the Rio Convention (pp. 45-74). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
15.
British Petroleum. (1998a). Retrieved November 9, 2002, from www.bp.com
16.
British Petroleum. (1998b). Health, safety and environment report 1997. London: Author.
17.
British Petroleum. (1999). BP Amoco Commissions independent audit and verification of greenhouse gas emissions. London: Author.
18.
British Petroleum. (2000a). BP Amoco combination with ARCO completed. London: Author.
19.
British Petroleum. (2000b). BP Amoco launches new climate change website . London: Author.
20.
British Petroleum. (2000c). BP Amoco unveils new global brand to drive growth . London: Author.
21.
British Petroleum. (2002). Annual report 2001. London: Author.
22.
British Petroleum. (2004). Our position. Retrieved November 7, 2004, from http://www.bp.com/sectiongenericarticle.do?categoryId=2011560&contentId=2016944
23.
British Petroleum. (2005). Emissions from our products. Retrieved July 27, 2005, from http://www.bp.com/sectiongenericarticle.do?categoryId=9002336&contentId=3072043
24.
Browne, J. (1997a). Climate change: The new agenda. London: British Petroleum Corporation.
25.
Browne, J. (1997b). Climate change: The policy options. London: British Petroleum Corporation.
26.
Browne, J. (1998). Leading a global company: The case of BP. London: British Petroleum Corporation.
27.
Browne, J. (2003). Climate change. London: British Petroleum Corporation.
28.
Bunker, S. (1996). Raw materials and the global economy: Oversights and distortions in industrial ecology. Society & Natural Resources, 9, 419-429.
29.
Buttel, F.H. (2000). Ecological modernization as a social theory. Geoforum, 31, 57-65.
30.
Buttel, F.H. (2004). The treadmill of production: An appreciation, assessment and agenda for research. Organization & Environment , 17(3), 323-336.
31.
Christiansen, A., & Wettestad, J. (2003). The EU as a frontrunner on greenhouse gas emissions trading: How did it happen and will the EU succeed?Climate Policy, 3(1), 3-18.
32.
Climate change: Pact could cost economy plenty. (1998, June 10). Greenwire, p. 1.
33.
Collier, U. (1997a). The EU and climate change policy: The struggle over policy competencies. In U. Collier & R. E. Loefstedt (Eds.), Cases in climate change policy: Political reality in theEuropean Union (pp. 43-64). London: Earthscan.
34.
Collier, U. (1997b). `Windfall' emission reductions in the UK. In U. Collier & R. E. Loefstedt (Eds.), Cases in climate change policy: Political reality in theEuropean Union (pp. 87-107). London : Earthscan.
35.
Council of Economic Priorities. (1991). British Petroleum: A report on the company's environmental policies and practices . New York: The Council of Economic Priorities.
36.
Council of Economic Priorities. (1994). Exxon: An update on the company's environmental policies and practices. New York: Author.
37.
Cushman, J.H.J. (1998, April 26). Industrial group plans to battle climate treaty. The New York Times, p. 1.
38.
Dabrowski, W. (2006, June 8). Canada wrests oil from sands, but at what cost? The Washington Post. Retrieved 24 July, 2006, from http://www.planetark.org/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/36764/story.htm
39.
Davies, K., & Sawin, J. (2002). Denial and deception: A chronicle of ExxonMobil's efforts to corrupt the debate on global warming. Washington, DC: Greenpeace.
40.
DiMaggio, P., & Powell, W. (1991a). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality. In The new institutionalism in organizational analysis (pp. 63-82). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
41.
DiMaggio, P., & Powell, W. (Eds.). (1991b). The new institutionalism in organizational analysis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
42.
Drummond, J. (1997, April). When a sheep gets trapped in the moral maze. Shell World, pp. 8-9.
43.
Ehrenfeld, J.R. (1994, September). Industrial ecology: A strategic framework for product policy and other sustainable practices. Paper presented at the Green Goods: The Second International Conference and Workshop on Product Oriented Policy, Stockholm, Sweden.
44.
Elkington, J., & Burke, T. (1987). The green capitalists. London : Victor Gollancz.
45.
Engels, A. (2006). Market creation and transnational rule making: The case of CO2 emissions trading. In M.- L. Djelic & K. Sahlin-Andersson (Eds.), Transnational governance: Institutional dynamics of regulation . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
46.
Environmental Defense. (1997). British Petroleum announces plan to measure and report greenhouse gas emissions; to set targets; and to practice emissions trading (press release). Washington, DC: Author.
47.
Environmental Defense. (2002). PCA: Common elements among advanced greenhouse gas management programs. Washington, DC: Author.
48.
Environmental Protection Agency. (2006). Clear skies. Retrieved May 24, 2006, from http://www.epa.gov/clearskies/
49.
European Union Commission. (1992). A community strategy to limit carbon dioxide emissions and to improve energy efficiency (No. COM (92) 246 final). Brussels, Belgium: European Commission.
50.
Exxon. (1999). Kyoto and $2 gasoline . Irving, TX: Author.
51.
ExxonMobil. (2000). Global climate change: The op-ed series. Irving, TX: Author.
52.
ExxonMobil. (2001). Bush team for IPCC negotiation. Washington, DC: Author.
Fisher, D. (2004). National governance and the global climate change regime. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
55.
Fisher, D., & Freudenberg, W. (2001). Ecological modernization and its critics: Assessing the past and looking toward the future. Society & Natural Resources, 14, 701-709.
56.
Fligstein, N. (1990). The transformation of corporate control. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
57.
Fligstein, N. (1996). Markets as politics. American Sociological Review, 61(August), 656-673.
58.
Fligstein, N. (2002). The architecture of markets: An economic sociology of twenty-first-century capitalist societies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
59.
Foster, J.B. (1999). Marx's theory of metabolic rift: Classical foundations for environmental sociology. American Journal of Sociology , 105(2), 366-405.
60.
Foster, J.B., & York, R. (2004). Political economy and environmental crisis. Organization & Environment, 17(3), 293-295.
61.
Framework Convention on Climate Change. (1992 ). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. New York: Author.
62.
Freudenberg, W. (2005a). Privileged access, privileged accounts: Toward a socially structured theory of resources and discourses. Social Forces, 84(1), 89-114.
63.
Freudenberg, W. (2005b, August). Proportionality and disproportionality in environmental impacts: A call for systematic research. Paper presented at the American Sociological Association Annual Meeting, Philadelphia.
64.
Frosch, R., & Gallopoulos, N.E. (1990). Strategies for manufacturing in managing planet Earth. Scientific American, 261, 144-152.
65.
Garcia-Johnson, R. (2000). Exporting environmentalism: U.S. multinational chemical corporations in Brazil and Mexico. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
66.
Gladwin, T.N. (1993). The meaning of greening: A plea for organizational theory. In K. Fisher & J. Schot (Eds.), Environmental strategies for industry: International perspectives on research needs and policy implications (pp. 37-61). Washington, DC: Island Press.
67.
Global Climate Coalition. (1990). The Global Climate Coalition: Membership backgrounder. Washington, DC: Author.
68.
Global Climate Coalition. (1997). Administration climate proposal requires new taxes— And is complicated by new demands from developing countries. Washington, DC : PR Newswire.
69.
Gouldson, A., & Murphy, J. (1996). Ecological modernization and the European Union . Geoforum, 27(1), 11-21.
70.
Greenpeace. (1996). The scourge of the skeptics—Industry attacks on the IPCC second assessment report. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Author.
71.
Greenpeace. (1998a). Reputation and reality: Shell's record on fossil fuels and renewables. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Author.
72.
Greenpeace. (1998b). Running out of sky: Fossil fuels and climate change. Amsterdam, the Netherlands : Author.
73.
Guyon, J., & Woods, W. (1997, August 4). Why is the world's most profitable company turning itself inside out? Royal Dutch/Shell looked at the future and didn't like the view. Fortune, pp. 120-125.
74.
Hoffman, A.J. (1996). Trends in corporate environmentalism: The chemical and petroleum industries, 1960—1993. Society & Natural Resources, 9, 47-64.
75.
Hoffman, A.J. (2001). Linking organizational and field-level analyses: The diffusion of corporate environmental practice. Organization & Environment, 14(2), 133-156.
76.
Hoffman, A. J., & Ventresca, M. (Eds.). (2002). Organizations, policy, and the natural environment: Institutional and strategic perspectives. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
77.
Holzer, B. (2001). Transnational subpolitics and corporate discourses. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of London , London.
78.
How green is Browne? (1999, April 17). Economist , p. 74.
79.
Ibrahim, Y. (1997, December 12). Praise for the global warming initiative . The New York Times, p. D4.
80.
Inglehart, R. (1995). Public support for environmental protection: Objective problems and subjective values in 43 societies. PS: Political Science & Politics, March, 57-72.
81.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ( 1990). Climate change: The IPCC scientific assessment. Cambridge, UK: Author.
82.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ( 1996). Summary for policy makers. In J. T. Houghton, L. G. Meira Filho, B. A. Callender, N. Harris , A. Kattenberg, & K. Maskell (Eds.), Climate change 1995. The science of climate change. Contribution of Working Group I to the second assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (pp. 1-8). Cambridge , UK: Cambridge University Press.
83.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ( 2001). Summary for policy makers. In J. T. Houghton, Y. Ding, D. J. Griggs, M. Noguer, P. J. van der Linden, X. Dai, K. Maskell, & C. A. Johnson (Eds.), Climate change 2001. The scientific basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the third assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (pp. 1-20). Cambridge , UK: Cambridge University Press.
84.
International Energy Agency. (1997). Key issues in developing renewables. Paris: Author.
85.
International Energy Agency. (2002). Dealing with climate change: Policies and measures in IEA member countries . Paris: Author.
86.
International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association. (1988). Fourteenth annual report 1987-1988. London: Author.
87.
Jermier, J.M., Forbes, L.C., Benn, S., & Orsato, R. (2006). The new corporate environmentalism and green politics . In S. R. Clegg, C. Hardy, T. B. Lawrence, & W. Nord (Eds.), The Sage handbook of organization studies (2nd ed., pp. 618-650). London: Sage.
88.
Kassinis, G., & Vafeas, N. (2006). Stakeholder pressures and environmental performance . Academy of Management Journal, 49(1), 145-159.
89.
Kempton, W. (1993). Will public environmental concern lead to action on global warming?Annual Review of Energy and Environment , 18, 217-245.
90.
Kempton, W., & Craig, P.P. (1993). European perspectives on global climate change . Environment, 35(3), 17-45.
91.
Kolk, A., & Levy, D. (2001). Winds of change: Corporate strategy, climate change, and oil multinationals. European Management Journal, 19(5), 501-509.
92.
Kretzmann, S., & Wright, S. (1997). Human rights and environmental operations information on the Royal Dutch/Shell Group of companies 1996—1997: Independent annual report. Berkeley, CA: Project Underground and Rainforest Action Network.
93.
Landler, M. (2005, February 16). Mixed feelings as Kyoto pact takes effect. The New York Times, p. C1.
94.
Leggett, J. (1999). The carbon war: Global warming and the end of the oil era. London: Penguin Books .
95.
Levy, D. (1995). The environmental practices and performance of transnational corporations. Transnational Corporations, 4(April, no. 1), 44-67.
96.
Levy, D., & Egan, D. (1998). Capital contests: National and transnational channels of corporate influence on the climate change negotiations. Politics & Society, 26(3), 337-361.
97.
Levy, D., & Kolk, A. (2002). Strategic responses to global climate change: Conflicting pressures on multinationals in the oil industry. Business and Politics, 5(2), 131-151.
98.
Levy, D., & Newell, P.J. (2000). Oceans apart? Business responses to global environmental issues in Europe and the United States. Environment, 42(9), 8-20.
99.
Lin, K.C. (2001). Finding the right chemistry: The US chemical industry in Asia. Business and Politics, 3(2), 185-202.
100.
Long, T. (1998). The environmental lobby. In P. Lowe & S. Ward (Eds.), British environmental policy and Europe (pp. 105-118). London: Routledge.
101.
Lovins, A., & Lovins, L.H. (1997). Climate: Making sense and making money. Aspen, CO: Rocky Mountain Institute.
102.
Lowe, E.A., & Harris, R.J. (1998). Taking climate change seriously: British Petroleum's business strategy. Corporate Environmental Strategy, 5(2), 23-31.
103.
Lowe, P., & Ward, S. (1998). Britain in Europe: Themes and issues in national environmental policy. In P. Lowe & S. Ward (Eds.), British environmental policy and Europe: Politics and policy in transition (pp. 3-30). London : Routledge.
104.
Maass, P. (2005, August 21). The breaking point. The New York Times Magazine, p. 30.
105.
Mansley, M. (1994). Long-term financial risks to the carbon fuel industry from climate change. London: Greenpeace International.
106.
Mansley, M. (2002). Risking shareholder value? ExxonMobil and climate changeLondon: Claros Consulting Company.
107.
McCright, A.M., & Dunlap, R.E. (2003). Defeating Kyoto: The conservative movement's impact on US climate change policy. Social Problems, 50(3), 348-373.
108.
Meyer, J., & Rowan, B. (1977). Institutionalized organizations: Formal structure as myth and ceremony. American Journal of Sociology, 82, 929-964.
109.
Mintzer, I. M., & Leonard, J. A. (Eds.). (1994). Negotiating climate change: The inside story of the Rio Convention. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press and Stockholm Environment Institute.
110.
Mobil. (1998). The global climate change debate: An interview with Mobil Corporation's chairman and chief executive officer LouNoto. Fairfax, VA: Business Wire.
111.
Mol, A. ( 1995). The refinement of production: Ecological modernization theory and the chemical industry. Utrecht, the Netherlands: Van Arkel.
112.
Mol, A. ( 1999). Ecological modernization and the environmental transition of Europe: Between national variations and common indicators. Journal of Environmental Policy &Planning, 1(2), 167-181.
113.
Mol, A., & Buttel, F. (Eds.). (2002). The environmental state under pressure. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Elsevier Science .
114.
Mol, A., & Spaargaren, G. (2000). Ecological modernization theory in debate: A review. Environmental Politics, 9(1), 17-49.
115.
Murtha, T., & Lenway, S.A. (1994). Country capabilities and the strategic state: How national political institutions affect multinational corporations' strategies . Strategic Management Journal, 15(special issue), 113-129.
116.
Murtha, T., Lenway, S.A., & Bagozzi, R.P. (1998). Global mind-sets and cognitive shift in a complex multinational corporation. Strategic Management Journal, 19(2), 97-114.
117.
Nash, J., & Ehrenfeld, J. (1997). Codes of environmental management practice: Assessing their potential as a tool for change. Annual Review of Energy and the Environment, 22, 487-535.
118.
National Energy Technology Laboratory. (2000 ). The Carbon Capture Project: Technology solutions for environmental needs. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy.
119.
Natural Resources Defense Council. (1999). Kingpins of carbon: How fossil fuel producers contribute to global warming . Washington, DC: Natural Resources Defense Council, Union of Concerned Scientists, and U.S. Public Interest Research Group Education Fund.
120.
Natural Resources Defense Council. (2002). Confidential papers show Exxon hand in White House move to oust top scientist from International Global Warming Panel. Washington, DC : Author.
121.
Natural Resources Defense Council. (2003). The Bush Administration's air pollution plan. Washington, DC: Author.
122.
Nicholson, W. (1995). Alternative models of the firm. In W. Nicholson (Ed.), Microeconomic theory: Basic principles and extensions. Fort Worth, TX: Dryden.
123.
Oberthuer, S., & Ott, H. (1999). The Kyoto Protocol: International climate policy in the 21st century. Berlin, Germany: Springer.
124.
O'Connor, J. (1989). Political economy of ecology of socialism and capitalism. Capitalism, Nature, Socialism, 1(3), 93-108.
125.
Office of Technology Assessment. (1994). Industry, technology, and the environment: Competitive challenges and business opportunities. Washington, DC: Office of Technology Assessment, Government Printing Office.
126.
O'Neill, K. (2000). Waste trading among rich nations. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
127.
Organization for Economic Development and Cooperation. (1985). Environmental policy and technical change. Paris, France: Author.
128.
O'Rourke, D. (2003). Community-driven regulation: Balancing development and the environment in Vietnam. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
129.
Paterson, M. (1996). Global warming and global politics. London: Routledge.
130.
Pauly, L.W., & Reich, S. (1997). National structures and multinational corporate behavior: Enduring differences in the age of globalization. International Organization, 51(1), 1-30.
131.
Pershing, J. (1999). Fossil fuel implications of climate change mitigation responses. Paris: International Energy Agency.
132.
Petulla, J.M. (1987). Environmental protection in the United States: Industry, agencies, environmentalists. San Francisco: San Francisco Study Center.
133.
Petroleum Intelligence Weekly. (2003). PIW's top 50: How the firms stack up. Retrieved January 15, 2004, from www.energyintel.com
134.
Podolny, J., & Roberts, J. (1999). British Petroleum (A2): Organizing for performance at BPX (No. IB16A1). Palo Alto, CA: Graduate School of Business, Stanford University.
135.
Princen, T. (1997). The shading and distancing of commerce: When internalization is not enough. EcologicalEconomics, 20(3), 235-253.
136.
Pulver, S. (2002). Organizing business: Industry NGOs in the climate debates. GreenerManagement International, 39, 55-67.
137.
Pulver, S. (2004). Power in the public sphere: The battles between oil companies and environmental groups in the UN climate change negotiations, 1991-2003. Unpublished PhD, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley.
138.
Rabe, B. (2004). Statehouse and greenhouse: The emerging politics of American climate change policy. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
139.
Raymond, L. (1996). Climate change: Don't ignore the facts. The Lamp, 78, 2-3.
140.
Regulation & the environment. (1998, June 15). Platt's Oilgram News, 76(113), 3.
141.
Rowlands, I.H. (2000). Beauty and the beast? BP and Exxon's positions on global climate change. Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, 18, 339-354.
142.
Russo, M., & Fouts, P. (1997). A resource-based perspective on corporate environmental performance and profitability. Academy of Management Journal , 40(3), 534-559.
143.
Schnaiberg, A. (1980). The environment from surplus to scarcity. New York: Oxford University Press.
144.
Schnaiberg, A., & Gould, K. (1994). Environment and society: The enduring conflict . New York: St. Martin's.
145.
Schnaiberg, A., Pellow, D.N., & Weinberg, A. (2002). The treadmill of production and the environmental state. In A. Mol & F. Buttel (Eds.), The environmental state under pressure (pp. 15-32). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Elsevier Science.
146.
Schurman, R. (2004). Fighting Frankenfoods: Industry structures and the efficacy of the anti-biotech movement in Western Europe. Social Problems, 51(2), 243-268.
147.
Selley, N. (2000). Changing oil (Briefing Paper No. 10). London: Royal Institute of International Affairs.
148.
Sethi, P., & Elango, B. (1999). The influence of “country of origin” on multinational corporation global strategy: A conceptual framework. Journal ofInternational Management, 5(4), 285-298.
149.
Shell. (1997a). People and the environment: The 1997 Shell international exploration and production health, safety, and environment report. London: Royal Dutch/Shell Group.
150.
Shell. (1997b). Shell invests US$0.5 billion in renewables. London: Royal Dutch/Shell.
151.
Shell. (1998a). Profits and principles—Does there have to be a choice? The Shell report 1998. London : Royal Dutch/Shell.
152.
Shell. (1998b). Taking action on sustainable development: Climate change. London: Royal Dutch/Shell.
153.
Shell. (2000). Annual report 1999. London: Royal Dutch/Shell .
154.
Shell. (2002). People and connections: Global scenarios to 2020. London: Author.
155.
Shell. (2004). Using the market to help us. Retrieved April 12, 2004, from http://www.shell.com
156.
Skjaerseth, J.B., & Skodvin, T. (2001). Climate change and the oil industry: Common problem, different strategies. Global Environmental Politics, 4(1), 18-42.
157.
Sonnenfeld, D. (1998). From brown to green? Late industrialization, social conflict, and adoption of environmental technologies in Thailand's pulp industry . Organization & Environment, 11(1), 59-87.
158.
Spaargaren, G., & Mol, A. (1992). Sociology, environment, and modernity: Ecological modernization as a theory of social change. Society and Natural Resources, 5, 323-344.
159.
Thairs, E. (1998). Business lobbying on the environment: The perspective of the water sector. In P. Lowe & S. Ward (Eds.), British environmental policy and Europe: Politics and policy in transition (pp. 153-170). London: Routledge.
160.
Tombs, S. (1993). The chemical industry and environmental issues . In D. Smith (Ed.), Business and the environment: Implications of the new environmentalism (pp. 131-149). New York: St. Martin's.
161.
Transnational Resource and Action Center. (1999). Greenhouse gangsters vs. climate justice. San Francisco : Author.
162.
U.N. Climate Change Secretariat. (2005). National greenhouse gas inventory data for the period 1990—2003 and status of reporting. Bonn, Germany: Author.
163.
Ungar, S. (1998). Bringing the issue back in: Comparing the marketability of the ozone hole and global warming. Social Problems, 45(4), 510-527.
164.
U.S. agrees climate deal with Asia. (2005, July 28). BBC News World Edition.
165.
van den Hove, S., Le Menestrel, M., & de Bettignies, H.C. (2002). The oil industry and climate change: Strategies and ethical dilemmas. Climate Policy , 2(1), 3-18.
166.
van der Kolk, A. (1997). Has BP achieved a leadership position in its approach to climate change? How can BP build on its present position? Unpublished master's thesis, Imperial College of Science, Technology, and Medecine , London.
167.
van der Woerd, K.F., de Wit, C.M., Kolk, A., Levy, D.L., Vellinga, P., & Behlyarova, E. (2000). Diverging business strategies towards climate change: A USA-Europe comparison of four sectors of industry (No. 410 200 052). Bilthoven, the Netherlands: National Institute of Public Health and the Environment.
168.
Van Evera, S. (1997). Guide to methods for students of political science . Ithaca, NY: Cornel University Press.
169.
Vogel, D. (1986). National styles of regulation: Environmental policy in Great Britain and the United States. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
170.
Weinberg, A.S. (1998). Distinguishing among green businesses: Growth, green, and anomie. Society and Natural Resources, 11, 241-250.
171.
Welford, R. (1995). Environmental strategy and sustainable development: The corporate challenge for the 21st century. London: Routledge.
172.
Welford, R. (1997). Hijacking environmentalism: Corporate responses to sustainable development. London: Earthscan.
173.
Welford, R., & Starkey, R. (Eds.). (1996). Business and the environment . Washington, DC: Taylor and Francis .
174.
Williams, H.E., Medhurst, J., & Drew, K. (1993). Corporate strategies for a sustainable future . In J. Schot & K. Fisher (Eds.), Environmental strategies for industry: International perspectives on research needs and policy implications (pp. 117-146). Washington, DC: Island Press.
175.
World Meteorological Organization. (1990, October-November). Participants at the scientific/technical sessions . Paper presented at the Climate Change: Science, Impacts and Policy—Proceedings of the Second World Climate Conference , Geneva, Switzerland.
176.
Wright, E.O. (2004). Interrogating the treadmill of production: Some questions I still want to know about and am not afraid to ask. Organization & Environment, 17(3), 317-322.
177.
Yergin, D. (1992). The prize: The epic quest for oil, money, and power. New York: Simon & Schuster .
178.
York, R. (2004). The treadmill of (diversifying) production. Organization & Environment, 17(3), 355-362.
179.
York, R., & Rosa, E. (2003). Key challenges to ecological modernization theory . Organization & Environment, 16(3), 273-288.
180.
York, R., Rosa, E., & Dietz, T. (2003). Footprints on the Earth: The environmental consequences of modernity. American Sociological Review, 68(2 April), 279-300.
