This study explores the relationship between attribute agenda setting and public opinion of political candidates. Specifically, media salience of presidential candidate attributes across five national elections is compared to public opinion data measuring perceived candidate salience and the strength of public attitudes regarding candidates. Findings suggest that media salience of attributes is strongly linked with strengthened attitudes and is moderately linked with perceived candidate salience. The implications of the findings are also discussed.
Abelson, Robert P.1995. “Attitude Extremity. ”In Attitude Strength: Antecedents and Consequences, ed. Richard E. Petty and Jon A. Krosnick.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
2.
Althaus, Scott I. , and David Tewksbury. 2002. “Agenda Setting and the ‘New’News: Patterns of Issue Importance among Readers of the Paper and Online Versions of the New York Times. ”Communication Research29(2):180-208.
3.
Aronoff, Craig . 1976. “Predictors of Success in Placing News Releases in Newspapers.”Public Relations Review1(2):43-57.
4.
Bargh, J. A. , Shelly Chaiken, Rajen Govender, and Felicia Pratto. 1992. “The Generality of Automatic Attitude Activation Effect.”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology62:893-912.
5.
Benton, Marc , and Jean P. Frazier. 1976. “The Agenda-Setting Function of the Mass Media at Three Levels of Information-Holding.”Communication Research3:261-274.
6.
Blood, Deborah J. , and Peter C. B. Phillips. 1997. “Economic Headline News on the Agenda: New Approaches to Understanding Cause and Effects.” In Communication and Democracy, ed. Maxwell McCombs, Donald Shaw, and David Weaver.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
7.
Boninger, David S. , Jon A. Krosnick, Matthew K. Berent, and Leandre R. Fabrigar. 1995. “The Causes and Consequences of Attitude Importance.” In Attitude Strength: Antecedents and Consequences, ed. Richard E. Petty and Jon A. Krosnick.Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
8.
Cameron, Glen T. , Lynne M. Sallot, and Patricia A. Curtin. 1997. “Public Relations and the Production of News: A Critical Review and Theoretical Framework.”Communication Yearbook20:115-155.
9.
Chaffee, Steven H. 1972. “Longitudinal Designs for Communication Research: Cross-Lagged Correlations.” Presented at the Association for Education in Journalism annual conference, Carbondale, IL, August.
10.
Chaffee, Steven H.1991. Communication Concepts 1: Explication. London: Sage.
11.
Cover, Albert D. , and Bruce S. Brumberg. 1982. “Baby Books and Ballots: The Impact of Congressional Mail on Constituent Opinion.”American Political Science Review76(2):347-359.
12.
Cutlip, Scott M. , Allen H. Center, and Glen M. Broom. 1994. Effective Public Relations. 7th ed.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
13.
Dearing, James W. , and Everett Rogers. 1996. Communication Concepts 6: Agenda-Setting. London: Sage.
14.
de Vreese, Claes H.2003. Framing Europe: Television news and European Integration. Amsterdam: Askant Academic Publishers.
15.
Domke, David , Mark Watts, Dhavan V. Shah, and David P. Fan. 1999. “The Politics of Conservative Elites and the ‘Liberal Media.’”Journal of Communication49(4):35-58.
16.
Elms, Alan C.1966. “Influence of Fantasy Ability on Attitude Change through Role-Playing.”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology4:36-43.
17.
Entman, Robert . 1989. “How the Media Affect What People Think: An Information Processing Approach.”Journal of Politics51(2):347-370.
18.
Erber, Maureen W. , Sara D. Hodges, and Timothy D. Wilson. 1995. “Attitude Strength, Attitude Stability, and the Effects of Analyzing Reasons.” In Attitude Strength: Antecedents and Consequences, ed. Richard E. Petty and Jon A. Krosnick.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
19.
Ghanem, Salma. 1996. “Media Coverage of Crime and Public Opinion: An Exploration of the Second Level of Agenda Setting.” Ph.D. diss., University of Texas, Austin.
20.
Ghanem, Salma . 1997. “Filling in the Tapestry: The Second Level of Agenda-Setting.” In Communication and Democracy, ed. Maxwell McCombs, Donald L. Shaw, and David Weaver.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
21.
Golan, Guy , and Wayne Wanta. 2001. “Second-Level Agenda Setting in the New Hampshire Primary: A Comparison of Coverage in Three Newspaper and Public Perceptions of Candidates.”Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly78(2):247-259.
22.
Graber, Doris . 1972. “Personal Qualities in Presidential Images: The Contribution of the Press.”Midwest Journal of Political Science16:46-76.
23.
Hester, Joe B. , and Rhonda Gibson. 2003. “The Economy and Second-Level Agenda Setting: A Time-Series Analysis of Economic News and Public Opinion about the Economy.”Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly80(1):73-90.
24.
Iyengar, Shanto , and Donald Kinder. 1987. News That Matters. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
25.
Jeffres, Leo W. , and Richard M. Perloff. 1997. Mass Media Effects. 2nd ed.Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland.
26.
Judd, Charles M. , and J. T. Johnson. 1981. “Attitudes, Polarization, and Diagnosticity: Exploring the Effects of Affect.”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology41:25-36.
27.
Kim, Sei-Hill , Dietram A. Scheufele, and James Shanahan. 2002. “Agenda-Setting, Priming, Framing and Second-Levels in Local Politics.”Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly79(1):7-25.
28.
King, Pu-tsung . 1997. “The Press, Candidate Images, and Voter Perceptions.” In Communication and Democracy, ed. Maxwell McCombs, Donald L. Shaw, and David Weaver.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
29.
Kiousis, Spiro . 2003. “Job Approval and Favorability: The Impact of Media Attention to the Monica Lewinsky Scandal on Public Opinion of President Bill Clinton.”Mass Communication & Society6(4):435-451.
30.
Kiousis, Spiro , Philemon Bantimaroudis, and Hyun Ban. 1999. “Candidate Image Attributes: Experiments on the Substantive Dimension of Second Level Agenda Setting.”Communication Research26(4):414-428.
31.
Kiousis, Spiro , and Maxwell McCombs. 2004. “Agenda-Setting Effects and Attitude Strength: Political Figures during the 1996 Presidential Election. ”Communication Research31(1):36-57.
32.
Kosicki, Gerald . 1993. “Problems and Opportunities in Agenda-Setting Research: A 20-Year Assessment.”Journal of Communication43(2):100-128.
33.
Ku, Gyotae , Lynda L. Kaid, and Michael Pfau. 2003. “The Impact of Web Site Campaigning on Traditional News Media and Public Information Processing.”Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly80(3):528-547.
34.
Leff, Donna , David Protess, and Stephen C. Brooks. 1986. “Changing Public Attitudes and Policymaking Agendas.”Public Opinion Quarterly50:300-314.
35.
Lopez-Escobar, E. , J. P. Llamas, and M. E. McCombs. 1998. “Agenda Setting and Community Consensus: First and Second Level Effects.”International Journal of Public Opinion Research10(4):335-348.
36.
Lopez-Escobar, Esteban , Juan Pablo Llamas, Maxwell McCombs, and Rey Lennon. 1998. “Two Levels of Agenda Setting among Advertising and News in the 1995 Spanish Elections.”Political Communication15:225-238.
37.
Lopez-Escobar, Esteban , Maxwell McCombs, A. Tolsa, M. Martin, and Juan Pablo Llamas. 1999. “Measuring the Public Images of Political Leaders: A Methodological Contribution of Agenda-setting Theory.” Presented at the World Association of Public Opinion Research Regional Conference in Sidney, Australia, June.
38.
Maher, T. Michael . 2001. “Framing: An Emerging Paradigm or Phase of Agenda Setting?” In Framing Public Life: Perspectives on Media and Our Understanding of the World, ed. Stephen D. Reese, Oscar H. Gandy Jr., and August E. Grant.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
39.
Mann, Thomas , and Raymond Wolfinger. 1980. “Candidates and Parties in Congressional Elections.”American Political Science Review74:617-632.
40.
McCombs, Maxwell . 1996. “The Pictures of Politics in Our Heads.” Keynote address presented at the National Chengchi University, Taipei, Taiwan.
41.
McCombs, Maxwell . 2004. Setting the Agenda: The Mass Media and Public Opinion. Malden, MA: Polity.
42.
McCombs, Maxwell , and Tamara Bell. 1996. “The Agenda-Setting Role of Mass Communication.” In An Integrated Approach to Communication Theory and Research, ed. Michael Salwen and Donald Stacks.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
43.
McCombs, Maxwell , and George Estrada. 1997. “The News Media and the Pictures in Our Heads.” In Do the Media Govern? ed. Shanto Iyengar and Richard Reeves.London: Sage.
44.
McCombs, Maxwell , and Dixie Evatt. 1995. “Los temas y los aspectos: Explorando una nueva dimension de la agenda setting” [Objects and Attributes: Exploring a New Dimension of Agenda Setting]. Comunicacion y Sociedad8(1):7-32.
45.
McCombs, Maxwell , and Salma Ghanem. 2001. “The Convergence of Agenda Setting and Framing.” In Framing Public Life: Perspectives on Media and Our Understanding of the World, ed. Stephen D. Reese, Oscar H. Gandy Jr., and August E. Grant.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
46.
McCombs, Maxwell , Juan Pablo Llamas, Esteban Lopez-Escobar, and Federico Rey. 1997. “Candidate Images in Spanish Elections: Second-Level Agenda-Setting Effects.”Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly74(4):703-717.
47.
McCombs, Maxwell , Esteban Lopez-Escobar, and Juan Pablo Llamas. 2000. “Setting the Agenda of Attributes in the 1996 Spanish General Election.”Journal of Communication50(2):77-92.
48.
McCombs, Maxwell , and Amy Reynolds. 2002. “News Influence on Our Pictures in the World.” In Media Effects: Advances in Theory and Research, 2nd ed., ed. Jennings Bryant and Dolf Zillmann.Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
49.
McCombs, Maxwell , and Donald Shaw. 1972. “The Agenda-Setting Function of Mass Media.”Public Opinion Quarterly36:176-187.
50.
McGuire, William J.1986. “The Myth of Massive Media Impact: Savagings and Salvagings.” In Public Communication and Behavior, vol. 1, ed. George Comstock.Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
51.
McGuire, William J.1989. “Theoretical Foundations of Campaigns.” In Public Communication Campaigns, 2nd ed., ed. Ronald E. Rice and Charles K. Atkins.Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
52.
Nimmo, Robert , and Robert L. Savage. 1976. Candidates and Their Images: Concepts, Methods, and Findings. Santa Monica, CA: Goodyear.
53.
Perse, Elizabeth M.2001. Media Effects and Society. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
54.
Petty, Richard E. , Curtis P. Haugtvedt, and Stephen M. Smith. 1995. “Elaboration as a Determinant of Attitude Strength: Creating Attitudes That Are Persistent, Resistant, and Predictive of Behavior.” In Attitude Strength: Antecedents and Consequences, ed. Richard E. Petty and Jon A. Krosnick.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
55.
Pfau, Michael , and Roxanne Parrott. 1993. Persuasive Communication Campaigns. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
56.
Roberts, Marilyn , Wayne Wanta, and Tzong-Horng Dzwo. 2002. “Agenda Setting and Issue Salience Online.”Communication Research29(4):452-466.
57.
Sapiro, Virginia , and Joe Soss. 1999. “Spectacular Politics, Dramatic Interpretations: Multiple Meanings in the Thomas/Hill Hearings.”Political Communication16(3):285-314.
58.
Scheufele, Dietram A.1999. “Framing as a Theory of Media Effects.”Journal of Communication49(1):103-122.
59.
Scheufele, Dietram A.2000. “Agenda-Setting, Priming, and Framing Revisited: Another Look at Cognitive Effects of Political Communication. ”Mass Communication&Society3(2):297-316.
60.
Schoenbach, Klaus , and Holli A. Semetko. 1992. “Agenda-Setting, Agenda Reinforcing or Agenda-Deflating? A Study of the 1990 German National Election.”Journalism Quarterly69(4):837-846.
61.
Severin, Werner J. , and James W. Tankard. 2001. Communication Theories: Origins, Methods, and Uses in the Mass Media. 5th ed.San Francisco: Longman.
62.
Shaw, Donald , Maxwell McCombs, David Weaver, and Bradley J. Hamm. 1999. “Individuals, Groups, and Agenda Melding: A Theory of Social Dissonance.”International Journal of Public Opinion Research11(1):2-24.
63.
Sigel, Robert S.1964. “Effects of Partisanship on the Perception of Political Candidates.”Public Opinion Quarterly28:483-496.
64.
Smith, Kim A.1987. “Effects of Newspaper Coverage on Community Issue Concerns and Local Government Evaluations.”Communication Research14:379-395.
65.
Sohn, Ardyth B.1978. “A Longitudinal Analysis of Local Non-Political Agenda-Setting Effects.”Journalism Quarterly55:325-333.
66.
Soroka, Stuart N.2002. “Issue Attributes and Agenda-Setting by the Media, the Public, and Policymakers in Canada.”International Journal of Public Opinion Research14:264-285.
67.
Soroka, Stuart N.2003. Media, Public Opinion, and Foreign Policy. Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics8(1):27-48.
68.
Stone, Gerald C. , and Maxwell McCombs. 1981. “Tracing the Time Lag in Agenda-Setting.”Journalism Quarterly58:151-155.
69.
Takeshita, Toshio . 1997. “Exploring the Media’s Role in Defining Reality: From Issue Agenda-Setting to Attribute Agenda-Setting.” In Communication and Democracy, ed. Maxwell McCombs, Donald L. Shaw, and David Weaver.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
70.
Takeshita, Toshio , and Shunji Mikami. 1995. “How Did Mass Media Influence the Voters’ Choice in the 1993 General Election Campaign in Japan? A Study in Agenda-Setting.”Keio Communication Review17:27-41.
71.
Tesser, Abraham . 1978. “Self-Generated Attitude Change.” In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 11, ed. Leonard Berkowitz.San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
72.
Tesser, Abraham , Leonard Martin, and Marilyn Mendolia. 1995. “The Impact of Thought on Attitude Extremity and Attitude-behavior Consistency.” In Attitude Strength: Antecedents and Consequences, ed. Richard E. Petty and Jon A. Krosnick.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
73.
Wanta, Wayne . 1997. The Public and the National Agenda. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
74.
Wanta, Wayne , and M. J. Roy. 1995. “Memory Decay and the Agenda-Setting Effect: An Examination of Three News Media.” Presented at the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Washington, D.C.
75.
Weaver, David . 1984. “Media Agenda-Setting and Public Opinion: Is There a Link?” In Communication Yearbook 8, ed. Robert N. Bostrom.Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
76.
Weaver, David . 1991. “Issue Salience and Public Opinion: Are There Consequences of Agenda-Setting?”International Journal of Public Opinion Research3(1):53-68.
77.
Weaver, David . 1996. “What Voters Learn from the Media.”Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science546:34-47.
78.
Weaver, David , Doris A. Graber, Maxwell McCombs, and Chaim Eyal. 1981. Media Agenda-Setting in a Presidential Election. New York: Praeger.
79.
Werder, Olaf . 2002. “Debating the Euro: Media Agenda-Setting in a Cross-National Environment.”Gazette64(3):219-234.
80.
Williams, Wenmouth, Jr. , Mitchell Shapiro, and Craig Cutbirth. 1983. “The Impact of Campaign Agendas in Perceptions of Issues in the 1980 Campaign.”Journalism Quarterly60:226-231.
81.
Yioutas, Julie , and Ivana Segvic. 2003. “Revisiting the Clinton/Lewinsky Scandal: The Convergence of Agenda Setting and Framing.”Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly80(3):567-582.
82.
Zaller, John . 1992. The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
83.
Zucker, Harold G.1978. “The Variable Nature of News Media Influence.”In Communication Year-book 2, ed. Brent D. Ruben.New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.