Post-Conviction Traumatic Stress (PCTS) describes the cognitive, psychological, and physiological symptoms of trauma that result from a range of experiences with the criminal justice system. This pilot study aimed to empirically validate the construct of PCTS utilizing the Post-Traumatic Checklist (PCL-5), an existing measure of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) according to DSM-5 diagnostic criteria. Using mixed methods, the survey asked about the traumagenic impact of arrests, court proceedings, incarceration, probation/parole supervision, and sex offender registration requirements in a sample of people required to register as sexual offenders (RSOs; n = 290) and their family members (n = 126). The PCL-5 was used to estimate the prevalence of PTSD and to explore the unique presentation of symptoms. Findings indicated that 69% of registrants and 62% of family members reported clinically significant indicators of PTSD. Examples of specific symptom presentations are illustrated through qualitative responses. Implications for clinical treatment, policy, and future research related to PCTS are discussed.
AckermanA. R.HarrisA. J.LevensonJ. S.ZgobaK. (2011). Who are the people in your neighborhood? A descriptive analysis of individuals on public sex offender registries. International Journal of Psychiatry and Law, 34, 149–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2011.04.001
2.
AckermanA. R.SacksM. (2012). Can general strain theory be used to explain recidivism among registered sex offenders?Journal of Criminal Justice, 40(3), 187–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2011.11.002
3.
AckermanA. R.SacksM. (2018). Disproportionate minority presence on US sex offender registries. Justice Policy Journal, 16, 1–20.
4.
AgnewR. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology, 30(1), 47–88.
5.
American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental Disorders (5th Edition). Author.
6.
AndrewsD. A.BontaJ. (2010). Rehabilitating criminal justice policy and practice. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 16(1), 39–55.
7.
AndrewsD. A.BontaJ. (2017). The psychology of criminal conduct (4th ed.). Anderson Publishing.
8.
AshbaughA. R.Houle-JohnsonS.HerbertC.El-HageW.BrunetA. (2016). Psychometric validation of the English and French versions of the posttraumatic stress disorder checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). PloS one, 11(10), e0161645. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0161645
9.
Badenes-RiberaL.Molla-EsparzaC.LongobardiC.Sánchez-MecaJ.FabrisM. A. (2021). Homicide as a source of posttraumatic stress?: A meta-analysis of the prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder after committing homicide. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 34(2), 345–356. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22630
10.
BaileyD. J. S. (2017). A life of grief: An exploration of disenfranchised grief in sex offender significant others [journal article]. American Journal of Criminal Justice. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-017-9416-4
11.
BaileyD. J. S.KleinJ. L. (2018). Ashamed and alone: Comparing offender and family member experiences with the sex offender registry. Criminal Justice Review, 43(4), 440–457. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016818756486
12.
BlevinsC. A.WeathersF. W.DavisM. T.WitteT. K.DominoJ. L. (2015). The posttraumatic stress disorder checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28(6), 489–498.
13.
BloomS. L. (2013). Creating sanctuary: Toward the evolution of sane societies. Routledge.
14.
BraunV.ClarkeV. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101.
15.
BresslerR.ErfordB. T.DeanS. (2018). A systematic review of the posttraumatic stress disorder checklist (PCL). Journal of Counseling and Development, 96(2), 167–186.
16.
Bryant-DavisT. (2019). The cultural context of trauma recovery: Considering the posttraumatic stress disorder practice guideline and intersectionality. Psychotherapy, 56(3), 400–408. https://doi.org/10.1037/pst0000241
17.
CopesH.BeatonB.AyeniD.DabneyD.TewksburyR. (2020). A content analysis of qualitative research published in top criminology and criminal justice journals from 2010 to 2019. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45(6), 1060–1079.
18.
CordovaM. J.RibaM. B.SpiegelD. (2017). Post-traumatic stress disorder and cancer. The Lancet Psychiatry, 4(4), 330–338.
19.
CrisfordH.DareH.EvangeliM. (2008). Offence-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptomatology and guilt in mentally disordered violent and sexual offenders. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology, 19(1), 86–107.
20.
de Vries RobbéM.de VogelV.KosterK.BogaertsS. (2015). Assessing protective factors for sexually violent offending with the SAPROF. Sexual Abuse, 27(1), 51–70.
21.
EllisonJ. M.CainC. M.BakerB.PaigeB. (2022). The dangers of short-term confinement: Indicators of safety risks among individuals in jail. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, Advanced Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624x221110808
22.
FelittiV. J.AndaR. F.NordenbergD.WilliamsonD. F.SpitzA. M.EdwardsV.KossM. P.MarksJ. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258.
23.
FernandesA. D. (2020). How far up the river? Criminal justice contact and health outcomes. Social Currents, 7(1), 29–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/2329496519870216
24.
FondacaroK.MazullaE. (2018). The chronic traumatic stress framework: A conceptual model to guide empirical investigation and mental health treatment for refugees and survivors of torture. Torture Journal, 28(1), 576.
25.
Gajewski-NemesJ.MessinaN. (2021). Exploring and healing invisible wounds: Perceptions of trauma-specific treatment from incarcerated men and women. Journal of Trauma & Treatment, 10(5), 1–8.
26.
GaleaS.TracyM.NorrisF.CoffeyS. F. (2008). Financial and social circumstances and the incidence and course of PTSD in Mississippi during the first two years after Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21(4), 357–368. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20355
27.
GoffA.RoseE.RoseS.PurvesD. (2007). Does PTSD occur in sentenced prison populations? A systematic literature review. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 17(3), 152–162.
28.
GoffmanE. (1963). Stigma: Notes on a spoiled identity. Simon & Schuster.
29.
GradyM. D.LevensonJ. S.GloverJ.KavanaghS. (2022a). Is sex-offending treatment trauma-informed? Exploring perspectives of clinicians and clients. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 28(1), 60–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552600.2021.1942572
30.
GradyM. D.LevensonJ. S.GloverJ.KavanaghS.CarterK. (2022b). Hurt people hurt other people”: The link between past trauma and sexual offending. Sexual Offending Research, Theory, and Prevention, 17, 1–28.
31.
HamiltonE. (2017). Identity concerns among sexual offenders: The narrative call. Practice Innovations, 2(1), 13–20.
32.
HamiltonE. (2020). Toward a focused conceptualization of collateral consequences among individuals who sexually offend: A systematic review. Sexual Abuse, Advanced Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063220981906
33.
HamiltonE.Fairfax-ColumboJ. (2022). Predicting recidivism: Psychosocial collateral consequences among registered offenders. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 29(1), 160–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552600.2022.2038712
34.
HansonR. K.HarrisA. J. R.LetourneauE.HelmusL.ThorntonD. (2018). Reductions in risk based on time offense free in the community: Once a sexual offender, not always a sexual offender Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 24(1), 48-63. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000135
35.
HarrisD. A. (2017). Desistance from sexual offending: Narratives of Retirement, regulation and Recovery. Springer.
36.
HarrisD. A.LevensonJ. S. (2021). Life on “the list” is a life lived in fear: Post-conviction traumatic stress in men convicted of sexual offenses. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 65(6), 763–789. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624x20952397
37.
HarrisD. A.LevensonJ. S. (2022). A framework for post-conviction traumatic stress: Preliminary findings from a focus group of men under community supervision for sex offences. Psychology, Crime and Law, Advanced Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2022.2157827
38.
HarrisD. A.PedneaultA.WillisG. (2017) The pursuit of primary human goods in men desisting from sexual offending. Sexual Abuse. 31(2), 197–219, https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063217729155
39.
HolleyS. R.EwingS. T.StiverJ. T.BlochL. (2017). The relationship between emotion regulation, executive functioning, and aggressive behaviors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(11), 1692–1707. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515592619
40.
HopwoodT. L.SchutteN. S.LoiN. M. (2019). Anticipatory traumatic reaction: Outcomes arising from secondary exposure to disasters and large-scale threats. Assessment, 26(8), 1427–1443. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191117731815
41.
JaffeA. E.DiLilloD.HoffmanL.HaikalisM.DykstraR. E. (2015). Does it hurt to ask? A meta-analysis of participant reactions to trauma research. Clinical Psychology Review, 40, 40–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2015.05.004
42.
JäggiL. J.MezukB.WatkinsD. C.JacksonJ. S. (2016). The relationship between trauma, arrest, and incarceration history among black Americans: Findings from the national survey of American life. Society and Mental Health, 6(3), 187–206. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156869316641730
43.
JeglicE.MercadoC. C.LevensonJ. S. (2011). The prevalence and correlates of depression and hopelessness among sex offenders subject to community notification and residence restriction legislation. Journal of Criminal Justice, 37(1), 46–59.
44.
JungS. (2017). RNR principles in practice in the management and treatment of sexual abusers. Safer Society Press.
45.
KavanaghS.LevensonJ. S. (2022). Supporting those who love the loathed: Trauma-informed support groups for family members of registered sex offenders. Families in Society, 103(2), 208–220.
46.
LeBelT. P.RichieM. (2018). The psychological effects of contact with the criminal justice system. In Handbook on the consequences of sentencing and punishment decisions (pp. 122–142). Routledge.
47.
LevensonJ. S. (2016). Hidden Challenges: Sex offenders legislated into homelessness. Journal of Social Work. Advanced Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1468017316654811
48.
LevensonJ. S.GradyM. D.LeibowitzG. (2016). Grand challenges: Social justice and the need for evidence-based sex offender registry reform. Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare, 43(2), 259.
49.
LevensonJ. S.WillisG. M.PrescottD. S. (2020). Evidence-based practice and the role of trauma-informed care in sex offending treatment. In SwabyH.WinderB.LievesleyR.HockenK.BlagdenN.BanyardP. (Eds), Sexual crime and trauma (pp. 197–224). Palgrave Macmillan.
50.
LiemM.KunstM. (2013). Is there a recognizable post-incarceration syndrome among released “lifers”. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 36(3), 333–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2013.04.012
51.
ListwanS. J.SullivanC. J.AgnewR.CullenF. T.ColvinM. (2013). The pains of imprisonment revisited: The impact of strain on inmate recidivism. Justice Quarterly, 30(1), 144–168. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2011.597772
52.
MacNairR. M. (2015). Causing trauma as a form of trauma. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 21(3), 313–321. https://doi.org/10.1037/pac0000116
53.
MaengL. Y.MiladM. R. (2017). Post-traumatic stress disorder: The relationship between the fear response and chronic stress. Chronic Stress, 1, 2470547017713297. https://doi.org/10.1177/2470547017713297
MarunaS. (2001). Making good: How ex-covicts reform and rebuild their lives. American Psychological Association.
56.
MarunaS.LeBelT. P.MitchellN.NaplesM. (2004). Pygmalion in the reintegration process: Desistance from crime through the looking glass. Psychology, Crime and Law, 10(3), 271–281. https://doi.org/10.1080/10683160410001662762
57.
MarunaS.LiemM. (2020). Where is this story going? A critical analysis of the emerging field of narrative criminology. Annual Review of Criminology, 4(1), 125–146.
58.
MaschiT.GibsonS. (2012). Schema behind bars trauma, age, ethnicity, and offenders’ world assumptions. Traumatology, 18(1), 8–19.
59.
MaslowA. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396.
60.
McCartanK. F.HarrisD. A.PrescottD. S. (2021). Seen and not heard: The service user’s experience through the justice system of individuals convicted of sexual offenses. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 65(12), 1299–1315.
61.
MingusW.BurchfieldK. B. (2012). From prison to integration: Applying modified labeling theory to sex offenders. Criminal Justice Studies, 25(1), 97–109.
62.
MorrisonK.SuS.KeckM.BeidelD. C. (2021). Psychometric properties of the PCL-5 in a sample of first responders. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 77, 102339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102339
63.
NajavitsL. M.SchmitzM.JohnsonK. M.SmithC.NorthT.HamiltonN.WalserR.ReederK.NormanS.WilkinsK. (2009). Seeking Safety therapy for men: Clinical and research experiences. In Men and addictions (pp. 37–58). Nova Science Publishers.
PaternosterR.IovanniL. (1989). The labeling perspective and delinquency: An elaboration of the theory and an assessment of the evidence. Justice Quarterly, 6(3), 359–394.
66.
PetersiliaJ. (2003). When prisoners come home: Parole and prisoner reentry. Oxford University Press.
Pettus-DavisC.RennT.LacasseJ. R.MotleyR. (2019). Proposing a population-specific intervention approach to treat trauma among men during and after incarceration. Psychology of Men & Masculinities, 20(3), 379–393. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000171
69.
RothS. L.qureshiA.MouldenH. M.ChaimowitzG. A.LaniusR. A.LosierB. J.MckinnonM. C. (2022). Trapped in their shame”: A qualitative investigation of moral injury in forensic psychiatry patients. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 49(4), 593–612. https://doi.org/10.1177/00938548211039877
SadehN.McNielD. E. (2015). Posttraumatic stress disorder increases risk of criminal recidivism among justice-involved persons with mental Disorders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 42(6), 573–586. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854814556880
72.
SAMHSA (2014). SAMHSA's concept of trauma and guidance for a trauma-informed approach. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.
73.
SampleL. L.CooleyB. N.ten BenselT. (2018). Beyond circles of support: “Fearless”—an open peer-to-peer mutual support group for sex offense registrants and their family members. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. 62(19), 0306624X1875889.
74.
ShiL.SilverJ. R.HickertA. (2022). Conceptualizing and measuring public stigma toward people with prison records. Criminal Justice and Behavior. Advanced Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/00938548221108932
75.
SoteroM. (2006). A conceptual model of historical trauma: Implications for public health practice and research. Journal of health disparities research and practice, 1(1), 93–108.
76.
SteinmetzS. E.GrayM. J.ClappJ. D. (2019). Development and evaluation of the Perpetration-Induced Distress Scale for measuring shame and guilt in civilian populations. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 32(3), 437–447.
77.
TedeschiR. G.CalhounL. G.GroleauJ. M. (2015). Clinical applications of posttraumatic growth. In JosephS. (Ed), Positive psychology in practice (pp. 503–518). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118996874.ch30
78.
TeitcherJ. E. F.BocktingW. O.BauermeisterJ. A.HoeferC. J.MinerM. H.KlitzmanR. L. (2015). Detecting, preventing, and responding to “fraudsters” in internet research: Ethics and tradeoffs. Journal of Law Medicine & Ethics, 43(1), 116–133. https://doi.org/10.1111/jlme.12200
79.
Ten BenselT.SampleL. (2018). Living under sex offender laws: The collateral consequences for offenders and their families. Routledge.
80.
TewksburyR.LevensonJ. S. (2009). Stress experiences of family members of registered sex offenders. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 27(4), 611–626.
81.
TewksburyR.MustaineE. (2009). Stress and collateral consequences for registered sex offenders. Journal of Public Management and Social Policy, 15(2), 215–239.
82.
UggenC.ManzaJ.BehrensA. (2004). Less than the average citizen: Stigma, role transition, and the civic reintegration of convicted felons. In MarunaS.ImmarigeonR. (Eds), After crime and punishment: Pathways to offender reintegration (pp. 261–293). Willan Publishing.
83.
VaismoradiM.TurunenH.BondasT. (2013). Content analysis and thematic analysis: Implications for conducting a qualitative descriptive study. Nursing and Health Sciences, 15(3), 398–405.
84.
van der KolkB. (2014). The body keeps the score: Brain, mind, and body in the healing of trauma. Penguin.
85.
van der KolkB. (2005). Developmental Trauma Disorder: Toward a rational diagnosis for children with complex trauma histories. Psychiatric Annals, 35, 401–408. https://doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20050501-06
86.
van der KolkB. (2006). Clinical implications of neuroscience research in PTSD. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1071(1), 277–293.
87.
WaldramJ. B. (2007). Everybody has a story: Listening to imprisoned sexual offenders. Qualitative Health Research, 17(7), 963–970. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732307306014
88.
WardT.GannonT. A. (2006). Rehabilitation, etiology, and self-regulation: The comprehensive good lives model of treatment for sexual offenders. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 11(1), 77–94.
89.
WeathersF. W.LitzB. T.KeaneT. M.PalmieriP. A.MarxB. P.SchnurrP. P. (2013). The PTSD checklist for DSM-5. (PCL-5). Scale available from the National Center for PTSD at. https://www.ptsd.va.gov/
90.
WelshB. C.RocqueM. (2014). When crime prevention harms: A review of systematic reviews [journal article]. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 10(3), 245–266. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-014-9199-2
91.
WesternB. (2018). Homeward: Life in the year after prison. Russell Sage Foundation.
92.
WesternB.BragaA. A.DavisJ.SiroisC. (2015). Stress and hardship after prison. American Journal of Sociology, 120(5), 1512–1547. https://doi.org/10.1086/681301
93.
WilliamsM. T.MetzgerI. W.LeinsC.DeLappC. (2018). Assessing racial trauma within a DSM–5 framework: The UConn racial/ethnic stress & trauma survey. Practice Innovations, 3(4), 242.
94.
WillisG. M. (2017). Why call someone by what we don't want them to be? The ethics of labeling in forensic/correctional psychology. Psychology, Crime and Law, 24(7), 727–743. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2017.1421640
95.
WillisG. M.LevensonJ. S. (2022). Exploring risk for sexual recidivism and treatment responsivity through the lens of early trauma. Sexual Abuse, 34(5), 597–619. https://doi.org/10.1177/10790632211051681
96.
YoungJ. E.KloskoJ. S.WeishaarM. E. (2003). Schema therapy: A practitioner's guide. Guilford Press.
97.
ZoellnerL. A.Bedard-GilliganM. A.JunJ. J.MarksL. H.GarciaN. M. (2013). The evolving construct of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): DSM-5 criteria changes and legal implications. Psychological Injury and Law, 6(4), 277–289. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-013-9175-6
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
