During the past 30 years, American prisons have experienced rapidly expanding numbers of inmates, including more who are elderly. Elderly inmates present unique management challenges to the extent they experience age-specific adjustments and adaptations to prison life. Accommodating this “special needs” population, which places a disproportionate strain on available correctional resources, raises both prison environment and policy-level questions. Although some advocate early and/or medical release for older inmates who are seen as no longer posing a threat to society, state and federal correctional data indicate that early release is not a dominant trend. This article reviews the causes of the growth in the older male inmate population and then applies tools from gerontology to provide a perspective for evaluating current or prospective correctional system responses and programs, and to raise issues and suggest policies that might benefit older inmates as well as correctional systems.
AdamsJ.E. (1995). The incarceration of the older inmate. Nova. Law Review, 19(2), 455-475.
2.
AdayR.H. (1994a). Aging in prison: A case study of new elderly offenders. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 38, 79-91.
3.
AdayR.H. (1994b). Golden years behind bars. Federal Probation, 58(2), 1-19.
4.
AdayR.H. (2003). Aging prisoners: Crisis in American corrections. Westport, CT: Praeger.
5.
AuerhahnK. (2002). Selective incapacitation, three strikes, and the problem of aging prison populations: Using simulation modeling to see the future. Criminology, 1, 353-388.
6.
BakerD.P. (1999, July 3). Virginia opens special prison for aging inmates: Harsher sentences, parole rules expected to boost number of ailing people behind bars. Dallas Morning News, p. B4.
7.
BarnesM. (1999, June 21). Aging inmates present problems: Prison population grays with nation. Fayetteville Observer, p. 6.
8.
BoswellE. (2001). Montana’s elderly inmates set off national survey—Prisoner care leads to collaboration. Bozeman: Montana State University Press.
ButterfieldF. (2002, January 21). Tight budgets force states to reconsider crime and penalties. New York Times, p. A1.
11.
ChanelesS. (1987). Growing old behind bars. In K. C. Haas & G. P. Alpert (Eds.), The dilemmas of corrections: Contemporary readings (pp. 548-554). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
12.
ClemmerD. (1958). The prison community. In E. J. Latessa, A. Holsinger, J. W. Marquart, & J. R. Sorensen (Eds.), Correctional contexts: Contemporary and classical readings (Vol. 2, pp. 83-87). Los Angeles: Roxbury Press.
13.
Coalition for Federal Sentencing Reform. (1998). Executive summary. Alexandria, VA: National Center on Institutions and Alternatives.
14.
Correctional Medical Authority. (2000). Annual report of the CMA—Incarcerating elderly and aging inmates: Medical and mental health implications. Tallahassee, FL: Author.
15.
DoughtyP. (1999). A concern in corrections: Special health needs. Oklahoma City, OK: Oklahoma Department of Corrections.
16.
DrummondT. (1999). US: Cellblock senior. Times Magazine (US), p. 60.
17.
DuckettN., FoxT.A., HarshaT.C., & VishJ. (2001). Issues in Maryland sentencing—The aging Maryland prison population. College Park, MD: Maryland State Commission on Criminal Sentencing Policy.
18.
DurhamA.M. (1994). Crisis and reform: Current issues in American punishment. New York: Little, Brown.
19.
Florida Corrections Commission. (2001). Status report on elderly offenders. In Florida Corrections Commission, 2001 annual report. Tallahassee, FL: Author.
20.
Florida House of Representatives, Criminal Justice and Corrections Council, Committee on Corrections. (1999). An examination of elder inmates services: An aging crisis. Tallahassee, FL: Author.
21.
FlynnE.E., FlanaganT., GreenwoodP., & KrisbergP. (1995). Three-strikes legislation: Prevalence and definition. Critical Criminal Justice Issues (National Institute of Justice Report 158837, pp. 122-133). Washington DC: National Institute for Justice.
22.
FormbyW.A., & AbelC.F. (1997). Elderly men in prison. In J. I. Kosberg & L. W. Kaye (Eds.), Elderly men: Special problems and professional challenges (p. 317). New York: Springer.
23.
Georgia Department of Corrections. (2000). Georgia’s aging inmate population. Atlanta, GA: Author.
24.
GoettingA. (1983). The elderly in prison issues and perspectives. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 20, 291-309.
25.
GoettingA. (1984a). The elderly in prison: A profile. Criminal Justice Review, 9(2), 14-24.
26.
GoettingA. (1984b). Prison program and facilities for elderly inmates. In E. S. Newman, D. J. Newman, & M. L. Gewirtz (Eds.), Elderly criminals (pp. 169-176). Cambridge, MA: Oelgeschlager, Gunn, & Hain.
27.
GoettingA. (1985). Racism, sexism, and ageism in the prison community. Federal Probation, 44(3), 10-22.
28.
GrisetP. (1991). Determinate sentencing: The promise and the reality of retributive justice. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
29.
HolemanB. (1998). Nursing homes behind bars: The elderly in prison. Coalition for Federal Sentencing Reform, 2, 1-4.
30.
HooymanN., & KiyakH.A. (1999). Social gerontology: A multidisciplinary approach (5th ed., Vol. 520). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
31.
JohnsonE.H. (1988). Care for elderly inmates: Conflicting concerns and purposes in prisons. In B. McCarthy & R. Langworthy (Eds.), Older offenders: Perspectives in criminology and criminal justice (pp. 157-163). New York: Praeger.
32.
KatzS., FordA.B., MoskowitzR.W., JacksonB.A., & JaffeM.W. (1963). Studies of illness in the aged. The index of ADL: A standardized measure of biological and psychosocial function. Journal of the. American Medical Association, 185, 914-919.
33.
KingR.S., & MauerM. (2001). Aging behind bars: “Three strikes” seven years later. Washington, DC: The Sentencing Project.
34.
KraneJ. (1999a, April 12). Demographic revolution rocks U.S. prisons. APBnews, p. 4.
35.
KraneJ. (1999b, April 12). Should elderly convicts be kept in prison? APBnews, p. 5.
36.
LawtonM.P., & BrodyE.M. (1969). Assessment of older people: Self-maintaining and instrumental activities of daily living. Gerontologist, 9, 179-186.
37.
LawtonM.P., & NahemowL. (1973). Ecology and the aging process. In C. Eisdorfer and M. P. Lawton (Eds.), Psychology of adult development and aging. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
38.
MackenzieD.L. (2001). Sentencing and corrections in the 21st century: Setting the stage for the future (NCJ report 189089). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice.
39.
MerianosD.E., MarquartJ.W., DamphouseK., & HebertJ.L. (1997). From the outside in: Using public health data to make inferences about older inmates. Crime and Delinquency, 43, 298-313.
40.
MortonJ. (1992). An administrative overview of the older inmate. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Corrections.
41.
NeeleyC.L., AddisonL., & Craig-MorelandD. (1997). Addressing the needs of elderly offenders. Corrections Today, 59(5), 120-123.
42.
Ohio Department of Rehabilitation and Correction. (1997). Older offenders: The Ohio initiative. Columbus, OH: Author.
43.
OrnduffJ.S. (1996). Releasing the elderly inmate: A solution to prison overcrowding. Elder. Law Journal, 4, 20.
44.
RauschS.P. (1996). Foreword: Current issues in prison management. Criminal Justice Review, 21, 1-19.
45.
RosefieldH.A. (1993). The older inmate—Where do we go from here?. Journal of Prison and Jail Health, 12, 51-58.
46.
RussellM.P. (1994). Too little, too late, too slow: Compassionate release of terminally ill prisoners. Is the cure worse than the disease? Widener. Journal of Public Law, 3, 799-828.
47.
SchreiberC. (1999, July 19). Behind bars: Aging prison population challenges correctional health system. NurseWeek, p. 3.
48.
SheppardR. (2001, April 9). Growing old inside. Maclean’s, pp. 30-33.
49.
Southern Legislative Conference of the Council of State Governments. (1998). SLC special series report: The aging inmate population. Atlanta, GA: Author.
50.
SykesG.M. (1971). The society of captives. In E. J. Latessa, A. Holsinger, J. W. Marquart, & J. R. Sorensen (Eds.), Correctional contexts: Contemporary and classical readings (Vol. 2, pp. 88-109). Los Angeles: Roxbury Press.
51.
TurleyJ. (1989, October 9). Prisons aren’t nursing homes. New York Times, p. A17.
52.
U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Corrections. (1997). Prison medical care: Special needs populations and cost control. Longmont, CO: Author.
53.
Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994. (1994 ). HR 3355. Washington, DC: United States Department of Justice.
54.
WheelerM., ConnellyM., & WheelerB. (1995). The aging of prison populations: Directions for Oklahoma. Oklahoma City, OK: Oklahoma Department of Corrections.
55.
WiegandD., & BurgerJ.C. (1979). The elderly offender and parole. Prison Journal, 59, 48-57.
56.
WilliamsD. (2001, May 12). Aging inmates raise prison costs. The Augusta Chronicle, p. 3.
57.
YatesJ., & GillespieW. (2000). The elderly and prison policy. Journal of Aging & Social Policy, 11(2-3), 167-175.
58.
ZimbardoP. (1994). Transforming California’s prisons into expensive old age homes for felons: Enormous hidden costs and consequences for California’s taxpayers. San Francisco: Center on Juvenile and Criminal Justice.
