Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

Given the prevalence of stalking and subsequent health impacts, it should be of high priority for researchers to identify mechanisms associated with stalking health outcomes. The present study was an online survey of 236 cisgender women (M age = 39.43, SD = 11.80; 74.6% heterosexual; 72.0% white) who had experienced stalking. The participants completed measures of stalking victimization, ambivalent sexism, post-trauma cognitions, and symptoms of depression, posttraumatic stress disorder and physical health. The indirect associations between benevolent sexism and all three health outcomes via negative cognitions about the world and self were statistically significant. Although the present study provided preliminary evidence that may inform interventions to better support stalking survivors, numerous methodological limitations (e.g., cross-sectional design, homogenous sample) limit the internal and external validity of the results.

Keywords

depression posttraumatic stress disorder physical health self-blame

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Abrams

Viki

G. T.

Masser

Bohner

(2003). Perceptions of stranger and acquaintance rape: The role of benevolent and hostile sexism in victim blame and rape proclivity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(1), 111–125. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.111

Amar

A. F.

(2006). College women’s experience of stalking: Mental health symptoms and changes in routines. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 20(3), 108–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2005.10.003

Bailey

Morris

M. C.

(2021). Longitudinal associations among negative cognitions and depressive and posttraumatic stress symptoms in women recently exposed to stalking. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(11-12), 775–5794. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518807905

Bareket

Fiske

S. T.

(2023). A systematic review of the ambivalent sexism literature: Hostile sexism protects men's power; benevolent sexism guards traditional gender roles. Psychological Bulletin, 149(11-12), 637–698. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000400

Blaauw

Winkel

F. W.

Arensman

Sheridan

Freeve

(2002). The toll of stalking: The relationship between features of stalking and psychopathology of victims. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17(1), 50–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260502017001004

Blevins

C. A.

Weathers

F. W.

Davis

M. T.

Witte

T. K.

Domino

J. L.

(2015). The Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28(6), 489–498. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22059

Dressing

Kuehner

Gass

(2005). Lifetime prevalence and impact of stalking in a European population. British Journal of Psychiatry, 187(2), 168–172. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.187.2.168

Edwards

K. M.

Camp

E. E.

Lim

Logan

T. K.

Shorey

R. C.

Babchuk

(2022). Stalking among sexual and gender minorities: A systematic literature review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 66(13-14), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2022.101777

Foa

E. B.

Ehlers

Clark

D. M.

Tolin

D. F.

Orsillo

S. M.

(1999). The posttraumatic cognitions inventory (PTCI): Development and validation. Psychological Assessment, 11(3), 303–314. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.11.3.303

10.

Foa

E. B.

Zinbarg

Rothbaum

B. O.

(1992). Uncontrollability and unpredictability in post-traumatic stress disorder: An animal model. Psychological Bulletin, 112(2), 218–238. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.2.218

11.

Glick

Fiske

S. T.

(1996). The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(3), 491–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.491

12.

Gómez de La Cuesta

Schweizer

Diehle

Young

Meiser-Stedman

(2019). The relationship between maladaptive appraisals and posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 10(1), 1620084. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2019.1620084

13.

Green, J., & Yamawaki, N. (2024). Gender role ideology, ambivalent sexism, and homonegativity as predictors of individuals' attitudes toward stalking and its victims. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 33(5), 529–551. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2023.2297736

14.

Hauch

Elklit

(2023). The psychological consequences of stalking: Cross-sectional findings in a sample of Danish help-seeking stalking victims. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(2), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2281749

15.

Hayes

A. F.

(2022). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (3rd Ed.). Guilford Press.

16.

Janoff-Bulman

(1992). Shattered assumptions: Towards a new psychology of trauma. Free Press.

17.

Kamphuis

J. H.

Emmelkamp

P. M.

(2001). Traumatic distress among support-seeking female victims of stalking. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(5), 795–798. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.158.5.795

18.

Kamphuis

J. H.

Emmelkamp

P. M.

Bartak

(2003). Individual differences in post-traumatic stress following post-intimate stalking: Stalking severity and psychosocial variables. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 42(Pt 2), 145–156. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466503321903562

19.

Koss

M. P.

Figueredo

A. J.

Prince

R. J.

(2002). Cognitive mediation of rape’s mental, physical, and social health impact: Tests of four models in cross-sectional data. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(4), 926–941. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.70.4.926

20.

Kraaij

Arensman

Garnefski

Kremers

(2007). The role of cognitive coping in female victims of stalking. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22(12), 1603–1612. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260507306499

21.

Kramer

L. B.

Whiteman

S. E.

Petri

J. M.

Spitzer

E. G.

Weathers

F. W.

(2023). Self-rated versus clinician-rated assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder: An evaluation of discrepancies between the PTSD checklist for DSM-5 and the clinician-administered PTSD scale for DSM-5. Assessment, 30(5), 1590–1605. https://doi.org/10.1177/10731911221113571

22.

Kroenke

Spitzer

R. L.

Williams

J. B.

(2001). The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 16(9), 606–613. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x

23.

Kroenke

Spitzer

R. L.

Williams

J. B.

(2002). The PHQ-15: Validity of a new measure for evaluating the severity of somatic symptoms. Psychosomatic Medicine, 64(2), 258–266. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-200203000-00008

24.

LeMaire

K. L.

Oswald

D. L.

Russell

B. L.

(2016). Labeling sexual victimization experiences: The role of sexism, rape myth acceptance, and tolerance for sexual harassment. Violence and Victims, 31(2), 332–346. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-13-00148

25.

McEwan

T. E.

Simmons

Clothier

Senkans

(2020). Measuring stalking: The development and evaluation of the Stalking Assessment Indices. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 28(3), 435–461. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2020.1787904

26.

Mechanic

M. B.

Uhlmansiek

M. H.

Weaver

T. L.

Resick

P. A.

(2000). The impact of severe stalking experienced by acutely battered women: An examination of violence, psychological symptoms and strategic responding. Violence and Victims, 15(4), 443–458. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.15.4.443

27.

Morgan

, & BJS Statisticians. (2022). Stalking victimization, 2019. Office of Justice Programs. https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/sv19.pdf.

28.

Nguyen

L. K.

Spitzberg

B. H.

Lee

C. M.

(2012). Coping with obsessive relational intrusion and stalking: The role of social support and coping strategies. Violence & Victims, 27(3), 414–433. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.27.3.414

29.

O'Donnell

M. L.

Elliott

Wolfgang

B. J.

Creamer

(2007). Posttraumatic appraisals in the development and persistence of posttraumatic stress symptoms. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20(2), 173–182. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20198

30.

Pathé

Mullen

P. E.

(1997). The impact of stalkers on their victims. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 170(1), 12–17. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.170.1.12

31.

Purcell

Pathe

Baksheev

G. N.

Mackinnon

Mullen

(2012). What mediates psychopathology in stalking victims? The role of individual-vulnerability and stalking-related factors. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 23(3), 361–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2012.679007

32.

Resick

P. A.

Galovski

T. E.

Uhlmansiek

M. O.

Scher

C. D.

Clum

G. A.

Young-Xu

(2008). A randomized clinical trial to dismantle components of cognitive processing therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in female victims of interpersonal violence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76(2), 243–258. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.76.2.243

33.

Resick

P. A.

Schnicke

M. K.

(1993). Cognitive processing therapy for rape victims: A treatment manual. Sage.

34.

Schumm

J. A.

Dickstein

B. D.

Walter

K. H.

Owens

G. P.

Chard

K. M.

(2015). Changes in posttraumatic cognitions predict changes in posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms during cognitive processing therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 83(6), 1161–1166. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000040

35.

Smith

S. G.

Basile

K. C.

Kresnow

(2022). The national intimate partner and sexual violence survey (NISVS): 2016/2017 report on stalking. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

36.

Stalking Prevention, Awareness, & Resource Center. (n.d.). What is stalking. Retrieved September 18, 2024. https://www.stalkingawareness.org/definition-faqs/#1537978411844-584a1da9-69a8.

37.

Startup

Makgekgenene

Webster

(2007). The role of self-blame for trauma as assessed by the Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (PTCI): A self-protective cognition? Behavior Research and Therapy, 45(2), 395–403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2006.02.003

38.

Storey

J. E.

Pina

Williams

C. S.

(2023). The impact of stalking and its predictors: Characterizing the needs of stalking victims. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 38(21-22), 11569–11594. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605231185303

39.

Viki

G. T.

Abrams

Hutchison

(2003). The “true” romantic: Benevolent sexism and paternalistic chivalry. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 49(9-10), 533–537. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025888824749

40.

Viki

G. T.

Abrams

Masser

(2004). Evaluating stranger and acquaintance rape: Tahe role of benevolent sexism in perpetrator blame and recommended sentence length. Law and Human Behavior, 28(3), 295–303. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:lahu.0000029140.72880.69

41.

Weathers

F. W.

Blake

D. D.

Schnurr

P. P.

Kaloupek

D. G.

Marx

B. P.

Keane

T. M.

(2013). The life events checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5). Instrument available from the National Center for PTSD at www.ptsd.va.gov.

42.

Wilson

L. C.

Miller

K. E.

Leheney

E. K.

Ballman

A. D.

Scarpa

(2017). Examining the psychological effect of rape acknowledgment: The interaction of acknowledgment status and ambivalent sexism. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 73(7), 864–878. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22379

43.

Worsley

J. D.

Wheatcroft

J. M.

Short

Corcoran

(2017). Victims’ voices: Understanding the emotional impact of cyberstalking and individuals’ coping responses. SAGE Open, 7(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244017710292

44.

Zalta

A. K.

Gillihan

S. J.

Fisher

A. J.

Mintz

McLean

C. P.

Yehuda

Foa

E. B.

(2014). Change in negative cognitions associated with PTSD predicts symptom reduction in prolonged exposure. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 82(1), 171–175. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034735

The Indirect Associations Between Ambivalent Sexism and Health Outcomes Through Post-Trauma Cognitions in Women Stalking Survivors

Abstract

Keywords

Get full access to this article

References