Missing and Murdered Indigenous Peoples and the Interpersonal Victimization Experiences of Indigenous Peoples: A Strengths-Based Focus on Resilience

Abstract

This study draws upon original survey (n = 95) and interview (n = 16) data with mostly female Indigenous Peoples attending college to identify protective factors associated with resilience in the aftermath of interpersonal victimization and Missing and Murdered Indigenous Peoples (MMIP). Many participants experienced at least one form of victimization (82%), nearly all (94%) were aware of MMIP, and the majority had personally known a friend, family, or community member who had gone missing or been murdered (85%). Interview results revealed that MMIP had serious psychological and social impacts on Indigenous Peoples. Participants identified several protective factors that enhanced their resilience.

Keywords

Indigenous Native American resilience victimization missing and murdered Indigenous Peoples

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

American Psychological Association (2023) Resilience. https://www.apa.org/topics/resilience

Bachman

(1992). Death and violence on the reservation: Homicide, family violence, and suicide in American Indian populations (2nd edn). Praeger Publishers.

Bachman

Zaykowski

Kallmyer

Poteyeva

Lanier

(2008). Violence against American Indian and Alaska Native women and the criminal justice response: What is known (Vol. 1, pp. 1–168). National Criminal Justice Reference Service.

Basile

K. C.

Smith

S. G.

Kresnow

Khatiwada

Leemis

R. W.

(2022). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey: 2016/2017 report on sexual violence. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Brayboy

B. M. J.

(2014). Culture, place, and power: Engaging the histories and possibilities of American Indian education. History of Education Quarterly, 54(3), 395–402. https://doi.org/10.1111/hoeq.12075

Brayboy

B. M. J.

Fann

A. J.

Castagno

A. E.

Solyom

J. A.

(2012). Postsecondary education for American Indian and Alaska Natives: Higher education for nation building and self-determination. Journal of American Indian Education, 54(1), 154–186. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5749/jamerindieduc.54.1.0154

Brayboy

B. M. J.

Solyom

J. A.

Castagno

A. E.

(2015). Indigenous peoples in higher education. Journal of American Indian Education, 54, 154–186. doi:https://doi.org/10.1353/jaie.2015.a835528

Burden

Roddy

A. L.

(2024). The effects of polyvictimization and cultural connectedness on indigenous youth’s mental health and negative coping mechanisms. Victims & Offenders, 13, 542–557. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2024.2371476

Burnette

C. E.

Clark

C. B.

Rodning

C. B.

(2018). “Living off the land”: How subsistence promotes well-being and resilience among indigenous peoples of the Southeastern USA. Social Service Review, 92(3), 369–400. https://doi.org/10.1086/699287

10.

Campagna

(2016). Invisible victims: American Indian women and adolescent involvement in the domestic sex trade. American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 40(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.17953/AICRJ.40.1.CAMPAGNA

11.

Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada (2019). National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls .

12.

Cunneen

Tauri

J. M.

(2019). Indigenous peoples, criminology, and criminal justice. Annual Review of Criminology, 2(1), 359–381. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-criminol-011518-024630

13.

Duran

Diiran

Yellow Horse Brave Heart

Yellow Horse-Davis

(1998). Healing the American Indian soul wound. In Danieli

(Ed.). International handbook of mutigenerational legacies of trauma. Plenum Press, 341–354.

14.

Edwards

K. M.

Lim

Huff

Herrington

Leader Charge

Littleton

(2023). Rates and correlates of intimate partner violence among indigenous college students: A multi-campus study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 38(3), 7852–7866. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605221150945

15.

Finn

Gajda

Perin

Fredericks

(2017). Responsible resource development and prevention of sex trafficking: Safeguarding native women and children on the Fort Berthold reservation. Harvard Journal of Law & Gender, 40(1), 1–51. https://scholar.law.colorado.edu/faculty-articles/629

16.

Fisher

B. S.

Cullen

F. T.

Turner

M. G.

(1999). Extent and nature of the sexual victimization of college women: A national-level analysis. US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.

17.

Fleming

Ledogar

R. J.

(2008). Resilience and indigenous spirituality: A literature review. Pimatisiwin, 6(2), 47–64. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20963185/

18.

Fox

K. A.

(2020). The murder and missing of Indigenous women and girls: New policies on an enduring crisis. Criminal Law Bulletin, 56(6), 1055–1082.

19.

Fox

K. A.

Sharp

Stanek

, et al. (2022). Reducing Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls (MMIWG): A statewide study in partnership with Arizona’s MMIWG legislative study committee. Journal of Indigenous Social Development, 11(1), 180–205. https://ucalgary.ca/journals/jisd

20.

Fox

K. A.

Stanek

Mukosi

Sharp

Imus-Nahsonhoya

(2024). A systematic analysis of statewide reports on missing and murdered indigenous peoples in the U.S.: What we know and where to go from here. Rural Sociology, 89(S1), 758–785. https://doi.org/10.1111/ruso.12531

21.

Freeman

Ammerman

(2021). Adverse childhood experiences and resilience in native American families and communities. North Carolina Medical Journal, 82(6), 408–413. https://doi.org/10.18043/ncm.82.6.408

22.

Gillespie

L. K.

Fillmore

M. L.

(2024). Assessing the scope of missing indigenous persons in Idaho. Race and Justice, 15(3), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/21533687241293137

23.

Government of Canada. (2024). Government of Canada programs and initiatives to support Indigenous women, girls and 2SLGBTQI+ people. Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada. https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1671807890017/1671807916721#wb-auto-4

24.

Hart

M. A.

(2010). Indigenous worldviews, knowledge, and research: The development of an indigenous research paradigm. Journal of Indigenous Voices in Social Work, 1(1), 1–16. https://journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/index.php/jisd/article/view/63043

25.

Hatala

A. R.

Njeze

Morton

Pearl

Bird-Naytowhow

(2020). Land and nature as sources of health and resilience among indigenous youth in an urban Canadian context: A photovoice exploration. BMC Public Health, 20(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-08647-z

26.

Heid

Khalid

Smith

Kim

Smith

Wekerle

, Six Nations Youth Mental Wellness Committee, Bomberry

Hill

L.D.

General

D.A.

Green

T.K.T.J.

Wekerle

(2022). Indigenous youth and resilience in Canada and the USA: A scoping review. Adversity and Resilience Science, 3(1), 113–147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42844-022-00060-2

27.

Hop Wo

N. K.

Anderson

K. K.

Wylie

MacDougall

(2020). The prevalence of distress, depression, anxiety, and substance use issues among indigenous post-secondary students in Canada. Transcultural Psychiatry, 57(2), 263–274. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461519861824

28.

Hunnicutt

(2009). Varieties of patriarchy and violence against women: Resurrecting “patriarchy” as a theoretical tool. Violence Against Women, 15(5), 553–573. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208331246

29.

Irngaut

(2010). What their stories tell us: Research findings from the Sisters in Spirit initiative. Native Women’s Association of Canada.

30.

James

(2022). Missing and Murdered Indigenous People (MMIP): Overview of recent research, legislation, and selected issues for Congress report. Congressional Research Service, CRS Number: R47010. Retrieved from https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R47010

31.

Jones

N. A.

Mills

R. G.

Ruddell

Quinn

. (2016). Policing First Nations. Community perspectives. Collaborative Centre for Justice and Safety.

32.

Joseph

A. S.

(2021). A modern trail of tears: The Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women (MMIW) crisis in the US. Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine, 79(1), 102136–102149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jflm.2021.102136

33.

Kilpatrick

D. G.

Acierno

(2003). Mental health needs of crime victims: Epidemiology and outcomes. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16(2), 119–132. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022891005388

34.

Kirmayer

L. J.

Dandeneau

Marshall

Phillips

M. K.

Williamson

K. J.

(2011). Rethinking resilience from indigenous perspectives. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 56(2), 84–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674371105600203

35.

Kirmayer

L. J.

Gone

J. P.

Moses

(2014). Rethinking historical trauma. Transcultural psychiatry, 51(3), 299–319. https://doi.org/10.1177/13634615145572

36.

Knight

K. E.

Ellis

Murphy

S. T.

Olson

Wagner

Dion

Gemar

(2018). Vicarious victimization and related forms of secondary traumatization. Oxford University Press.

37.

Knight

K. E.

Ellis

Salois

E. M.

(2022). Developing a response to secondary trauma for American Indian and rural service providers. International Journal of Rural Criminology, 6(2), 252–272. https://doi.org/10.18061/ijrc.v6i2.8652

38.

Lucchesi

(2019). Zuya Winyan Wicayuonihan: Honoring warrior women. Sovereign Bodies Institute, in partnership with Brave Heart Society.

39.

Lucchesi

Echo-Hawk

(2018). Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls: A snapshot of data from 71 urban cities in the USA. Urban Indian Health Institute.

40.

Mcivor

Napoleon

Dickie

K. M.

(2009). Language and culture as protective factors for at-risk communities. International Journal of Indigenous Health, 5(1), 6–25. https://doi.org/10.18357/ijih51200912327

41.

McKinley

C. E.

(2023). “Prayer is universal”: How integrative faith practices enable indigenous peoples’ persistence and resistance to transcend historical oppression. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 16(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000497

42.

Menzies

(2019). Understanding the Australian aboriginal experience of collective, historical and intergenerational trauma. International Social Work, 62(6), 1522–1534. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872819870585

43.

Metallic

Law

(2019). Making the most out of Canada’s New Department of Indigenous Services Act. Yellowhead Institute. https://yellowheadinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/disa-brief.pdf

44.

Miller

A. N.

Orsillo

S. M.

(2020). Values, acceptance, and belongingness in graduate school: Perspectives from underrepresented minority students. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 15(1), 197–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2020.01.002

45.

Monchalin

Marques

Reasons

Arora

(2019). Homicide and indigenous peoples in North America: A structural analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 46(1), 212–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2019.01.011

46.

Muratore

M. G.

(2014). Victimization. In Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research (pp. 6917–6921). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_3156

47.

Pro

Camplain

de Heer

Chief

Teufel-Shone

(2020). A national epidemiologic profile of physical intimate partner violence, adverse childhood experiences, and supportive childhood relationships: Group differences in predicted trends and associations. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 7(4), 660–670. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-019-00696-4

48.

Richer

A. M.

Roddy

A. L.

(2022a). Culturally tailored substance use interventions for indigenous people of North America: A systematic review. The Journal of Mental Health Training, Education and Practice, 18, 60–77. doi:https://doi.org/10.1108/JMHTEP-07-2021-0088

49.

Richer

Roddy

A. L.

(2022b). Opioid use in indigenous populations: Indigenous perspectives and directions in culturally responsive care. Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions, 22, 255–263. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/1533256X.2022.2049161

50.

Rosay

A.B.

(2016). Violence against American Indian and Alaska Native Women and Men: 2010 Findings from the National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey. National Institute of Justice Research Report. NCJ 249736. U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.

51.

Sabzalian

(2019). Indigenous children’s survivance in public schools. Routledge.

52.

Schultz

Walters

K. L.

Beltran

Stroud

Johnson-Jennings

(2016). “I'm stronger than I thought”: Native women reconnecting to body, health, and place. Health & Place, 40, 21–28. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2016.05.001

53.

Shield

R. W.

(2004). The retention of indigenous students in higher education: Historical issues, federal policy, and indigenous resilience. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 6, 111–127. doi:https://doi.org/10.2190/HWKH-8LC1-WP90-45K0

54.

Smallwood

Woods

Power

Usher

(2021). Understanding the impact of historical trauma due to colonization on the health and well-being of indigenous young peoples: A systematic scoping review. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 32, 59–68. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1043659620935955

55.

Steele

(2020). Indigenous resilience. Arizona Law Review, 62, 305–356.

56.

Tachine

A. R.

Cabrera

N. L.

Yellow Bird

(2017). Home away from home: Native American students’ sense of belonging during their first year in college. The Journal of Higher Education, 88, 785–807. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2016.1257322

57.

Thomas

Mitchell

Arseneau

(2016). Re-evaluating resilience: From individual vulnerabilities to the strength of cultures and collectivities among indigenous communities. Resilience, 4, 116–129. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/21693293.2015.1094174

58.

Tuhiwai Smith

(2021). Decolonizing methodologies. Bloomsbury Publishing.

59.

U.S. Attorney’s Office (2025). Operation Not Forgotten will surge 60 FBI personnel to 10 FBI field offices to support investigations of Indian Country violent crimes .

60.

U. S. Department of Justice (2025). Missing or murdered Indigenous Persons .

61.

Vizenor

(2008). Aesthetics of survivance. Survivance: Narratives of native presence. University of Nebraska Press.

62.

Walters

K. L.

Simoni

J. M.

(2002). Reconceptualizing native women's health: An “indigenist” stress-coping model. American Journal of Public Health, 92, 520–524. doi:https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.92.4.520

63.

Weaver

H. N.

(2009). The colonial context of violence: Reflections on violence in the lives of native American women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24, 1552–1563. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260508323665

64.

Weaver

H. N.

, & Heartz

M. Y. H. B.

(1999). Examining two facets of American Indian identity: Exposure to other cultures and the influence of historical trauma. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 2, 19–33. https://doi.org/10.1300/J137v02n01_03

65.

Wexler

(2014). Looking across three generations of Alaska natives to explore how culture fosters indigenous resilience. Transcultural Psychiatry, 51, 73–92. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461513497417

66.

Whitbeck

L. B.

Adams

G. W.

Hoyt

D. R.

Chen

(2004). Conceptualizing and measuring historical trauma among American Indian people. American Journal of Community Psychology, 33, 119–130. doi:https://doi.org/10.1023/B:AJCP.0000027000.77357.31

67.

Wieskamp

V. N.

Smith

(2020). “What to do when you’re raped”: Indigenous women critiquing and coping through a rhetoric of survivance. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 106, 72–94. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/00335630.2019.1706189

68.

Wolfe

(2006). Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native. Journal of Genocide Research, 8, 387–409. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/14623520601056240

69.

Yusuf

H. O.

(2023). Transitional justice and colonialism. In Research handbook on transitional justice (pp. 405–420). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781802202519.00035