Refugee women with children are at increased risk of intimate partner violence (IPV) and adverse mental health outcomes. This paper examines (1) the prevalence of anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among 412 Syrian refugee women with children outside camps in Jordan who experienced past-year physical and/or sexual IPV, and (2) the relationship between IPV and mental health among the women. Multivariable logistic regression model results showed that women with past-year IPV had significantly higher odds of anxiety, depression, and PTSD versus women without past-year IPV. Service use, barriers to care, and implications for public health and social work interventions are discussed.
Al-NatourA.Al-OstazS. M.MorrisE. J. (2018). Marital violence during war conflict: The lived experience of Syrian refugee women. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 30(1), 32–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043659618783842
2.
AlHadiA. N.AlAteeqD. A.Al-SharifE.BawazeerH. M.AlanaziH.AlShomraniA. T.ShuqdarR. M.AlOwaybilR. (2017). An Arabic translation, reliability, and validation of Patient Health Questionnaire in a Saudi sample. Annals of General Psychiatry, 16(32), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12991-017-0155-1
3.
BaradaR.PottsA.BourassaA.Contreras-UrbinaM.NasrK. (2021). I go up to the edge of the valley, and I talk to God: Using mixed methods to understand the relationship between gender-based violence and mental health among Lebanese and Syrian refugee women engaged in psychosocial programming. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(4500), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094500
4.
BawadiH.Al-HamdanZ.KhaderY.AldalaykehM. (2022). Barriers to the use of mental health services by Syrian refugees in Jordan: A qualitative study. EMJH, 28(3), 197–203. https://doi.org/10.26719/emhj.22.030
5.
Ben-PoratA. (2020). Patterns of service utilization among women who are victims of domestic violence: The contribution of cultural background, characteristics of violence, and psychological distress. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(17-18), 3167–3187. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517707308
BronfenbrennerU. (2005). Making human beings human: Bioecological perspectives on human development. Sage Publications Ltd.
8.
BrooksM. A.MeinhartM.SamawiL.MukherjeeT.JaberR.AlhomshH.KaushalN.Al QutobR.KhadraM.El-BasselN.DasguptaA. (2022). Mental health of clinic-attending Syrian refugee women in Jordan: Associations between social ecological risk factors and mental health symptoms. BMC Women’s Health, 22(4), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-021-01584-y
9.
CARE International in Jordan. (2018.) A summary 8 years into exile: How urban Syrian refugees, non-Syrian refugees and vulnerable host communities in Jordan are coping and meeting challenges, eight years into the Syria crisis. https://rb.gy/0asc1u
10.
Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. (2017). Evaluation of imputation methods for the National Survey on Drug Use and Health. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. https://rb.gy/1ou6yy
11.
Center for HIV Identification, Prevention and Treatment Services (CHIPTS). (2010). Conflict Tactics Scale. University of California. https://rb.gy/l0t56w
12.
ChanJ. K.YoungM. Y.SharifN. (2016). Well-being after trauma: A review of posttraumatic growth among refugees. Canadian Psychology, 57(4), 291–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000065
13.
ClarkC. J.BloomD. E.HillA. G.SilvermanJ. G. (2009). Prevalence estimate of intimate partner violence in Jordan. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 15(4), 880–889. https://doi.org/10.26719/2009.15.4.880
14.
de AntissH.ZiaianT.ProcterN.WarlandJ.BaghurstP. (2009). Help-seeking for mental health problems in young refugees: A review of the literature with implications for policy, practice, and research. Transcultural Psychiatry, 46(4), 584–607. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461509351363
15.
De HaeneL.GrietensH.VerschuerenK. (2010). Adult attachment in the context of refugee traumatisation: The impact of organized violence and forced separation on parental states of mind regarding attachment. Attachment & Human Development, 12(3), 249–264. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616731003759732
16.
DoukiS.NacefF.BelhadjA.BouaskerA.GhachemR. (2003). Violence against women in Arab and Islamic countries. Arch Women Ment Health, 6(3), 165–171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-003-0170-x
17.
El-MoslemanyR.MellonL.TullyL.McConkeyS. J. (2022). Factors associated with intimate partner violence perpetration and victimization in asylum seeking and refugee populations: A systematic review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 23(3), 827–839. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838020977147
18.
ErgöçmenB. A.Yüksel-Kaptanog ˘luI.JansenH. A. F. M. (2013). Intimate partner violence and the relation between help-seeking behavior and the severity and frequency of physical violence among women in Turkey. Violence Against Women, 19(9), 1151–1174. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801213498474
19.
FalbK. L.BlackwellA.StennesJ.HusseinM.AnnanJ. (2019). Depressive symptoms among women in Raqqa governorate, Syria: Associations with intimate partner violence, food insecurity, and perceived needs. Global Mental Health, 6(e22), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1017/gmh.2019.20
20.
Ford-GilboeM.VarcoeC.NohM.QuestJ.HammertonJ.AlhalalE.BurnettC. (2015). Patterns and predictors of service use among women who have separated from an abusive partner. Journal of Family Violence, 30(4), 419–431. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-015-9688-8
21.
GhubashR.DaradkehT. K.Al NaseriK. S.Al BloushiN. B. A.Al DaheriA. M. (2000). The performance of the Center for Epidemiologic Study Depression Scale (CES-D) in an Arab female community. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 46(4), 241–249. https://doi.org/10.1177/002076400004600402
22.
GoessmannK.IbrahimH.SaupeL. B.IsmailA. A.NeunerF. (2019). The contribution of mental health and gender attitudes to intimate partner violence in the context of war and displacement: Evidence from a multi-informant couple survey in Iraq. Social Science & Medicine, 237(112457), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112457
23.
Guha-SapirD.SchlüterB.Rodriguez-LlanesJ. M.LillywhiteL.HicksM. H. (2018). Patterns of civilian and child deaths due to war-related violence in Syria: A comparative analysis from the Violation Documentation Center dataset, 2011-2016. Lancet Global Health, 6(1), 103–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(17)30469-2
24.
HermanJ. L. (1992). Complex PTSD: A syndrome in survivors of prolonged and repeated trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5(3), 377–391. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490050305
25.
HynieM. (2018). The social determinants of refugee mental health in the post-migration context: A critical review. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 63(5), 297–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/0706743717746666
26.
IbrahimH.ErtlV.CataniC.IsmailA. A.NeunerF. (2018). The validity of post-traumatic stress disorder checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) as screening instrument with Kurdish and Arab displaced populations living in the Kurdistan region of Iraq. BMC Psychiatry, 18(259), 1–8. https://doi.org/10/1186/s12888-018-1839-z
27.
JordanC. E.CampbellR.FollingstadD. (2010). Violence and women’s mental health: The impact of physical, sexual, and psychological aggression. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 6(2010), 607–628. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-090209-151437
28.
LelaurainS.GrazianiP.Lo MonacoG. (2017). Intimate partner violence and help-seeking: A systematic review and social psychological tracks to future research. European Psychologist, 22(4), 263–281. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000304
29.
LiangB.GoodmanL.Tummala-NarraP.WeintraubS. (2005). A theoretical framework for understanding help-seeking processes among survivors of intimate partner violence. Amer Journal of Community Psychology, 36(1-2), 71–84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-005-6233-6
30.
LogieC. H.OkumuM.MwimaS.HakizaR.IrungiK. P.KyambaddeP.KirondeE.NarasimhanM. (2019). Social ecological factors associated with experiencing violence among urban refugee and displaced adolescent girls and young women in informal settlements in Kampala, Uganda: A cross-sectional study. Conflict and Health, 13(60), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13031-019-0242-9
31.
MelchiorL. A.HubaG. J.BrownV. B.RebackC. J. (1993). A short depression index for women. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53(4), 1117–1125. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164493053004024
32.
MurthyR. S.LakshminarayanaR. (2006). Mental health consequences of war: A brief review of research findings. World Psychiatry, 5(1), 25–30.
33.
NamyS.CarlsonC.O’HaraK.NakutiJ.BukulukiP.LwanyaagaJ.NamakulaS.NanyunjaB.WainbergM.NakerD.MichauL. (2017). Towards a feminist understanding of intersecting violence against women and children in the family. Social Science & Medicine, 184, 40–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.04.042
34.
NasehM.LivieroN.RafieifarM.AbtahiZ.PotockyM. (2020). Syrian Refugees’ perspectives and service providers’ viewpoints on major needs and future plans in Jordan. Journal of International Humanitarian Action, 5(14), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41018-020-00083-3
35.
NguyenT. P.GuajardoM. G. U.SahleB. W.RenzahoA. M. N.Slewa-YounanS. (2022). Prevalence of common mental disorders in adult Syrian refugees resettled in high income Western countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry, 22(15), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03664-7
OweisA.GharaibehM.Al-NatourA.FroelicherE. (2009). Violence against women: Unveiling the suffering of women with a low income in Jordan. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 20(1), 69–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043659608325848
38.
PatelA. R.PrabhuS.SciarrinoN. A.PresseauC.SmithN. B.RozekD. C. (2021). Gender-based violence and suicidal ideation among Indian women from slums: An examination of direct and indirect effects of depression, anxiety, and PTSD symptoms. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 13(6), 694–702. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000998
39.
PecongaE. K.Høgh ThøgersenM. (2019). Post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety in adult Syrian refugees: What do we know?Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 48(7), 677–687. https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494819882137
40.
RizkallaN.MallatN. K.ArafaR.AdiS.SoudiL.SegalS. P. (2020). Children are not children anymore; they are a lost generation: Adverse physical and mental health consequences on Syrian refugee children. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(8378), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17228378
41.
RubensteinB. L.Zhi Ning LuL.MacFarlaneM.StarkL. (2020). Predictors of interpersonal violence in the household in humanitarian settings: A systematic review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 21(1), 31–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838017738724
42.
SankariS.WrobelN.LeonardM.GrasserL.SankariA.JavanbakhtA. (2023). Relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder and sleep disturbances in Syrian refugees in the United States. Avicenna Journal of Medicine, 13(2), 82–88. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0043-1768646
43.
SchlechterP.KampS.WanningerK.KnausenbergerJ.WagnerU.WilkinsonP. O.NohrL.HellmannJ. H. (2021). Help-seeking attitudes and distress disclosure among Syrian refugees in Germany. International Forum, 49(3), 330–352. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000020974934
44.
SpitzerR. L.KroenkeK.WilliamsJ. B. W.LoweB. (2006). A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: The GAD-7. Archives of Internal Medicine, 166(10), 1092–1097. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092
45.
SteelZ.SiloveD.BirdK.McGorryP.MohanP. (1999). Pathways from war trauma to posttraumatic stress symptoms among Tamil asylum seekers, refugees, and immigrants. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 12(3), 421–435. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1024710902534
46.
StrausM. A. (1990). The conflict tactics scales and its critics: An evaluation and new data on validity and reliability. In StrausM. A.GellesR. J. (Eds.), Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptations to violence in 8,145 families (pp. 49–73). Transaction Publishers.
47.
StrausM. A.GellesR. J.SteinmetzS. K. (1980). Behind the closed doors: Violence in the American family. Doubleday.
48.
StrausM. A.MickeyE. L. (2012). Reliability, validity, and prevalence of partner violence measured by the Conflict Tactics Scales in male-dominant nations. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17(5), 463–474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.06.004
49.
TappisH.LylesE.BurtonA., Jordan Health Access Study Team, Lebanon Health Access Study Team & DoocyS. (2017). Maternal health care utilization among Syrian refugees in Lebanon and Jordan. Maternal Child Health Journal, 21(2017), 1798–1807. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-017-2315-y
UstaJ.MastersonA. R.FarverJ. M. (2019). Violence against displaced Syrian women in Lebanon. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(18), 3767–3779. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516670881
52.
WeathersF. W.LitzB. T.KeaneT. M.PalmieriP. A.MarxB. P.SchnurrP. P. (2013). The PTSD checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). Scale available from the National Center for PTSD at www.ptsd.va.gov
53.
Yüksel-Kaptanoğluİ.TürkyılmazA. S.HeiseL. (2012). What puts women at risk of violence from their husbands? Findings from a large, nationally representative survey in Turkey. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27(14), 2743–2769. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260512438283
