College students can use bystander intervention tactics to prevent sexual assault within their communities. One's group memberships and group identification—conceptualized within social identity theory—could influence attitudes and behaviors related to bystander intervention. College students (n = 1,170) participated in an online survey measuring group membership with student subgroups, identification, and bystander intervention perceptions. Subgroups in this study included fraternities/sororities, student organizations, National Collegiate Athletic Association athletes, club/intramural sports, and spiritual/faith-based organizations. For various student subgroups, group identification was significantly correlated with individuals’ perceived willingness and likelihood to engage in bystander intervention and their perceptions about the helpfulness of bystander intervention tactics.
BalajiM. S.RoyS. K.SadequeS. (2016). Antecedents and consequences of university brand identification. Journal of Business Research, 69(8), 3023–3032. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2016.01.017
2.
BanyardV. L.JeffersonG. C.SeguraA.FormanS. G.HavilandM.McMahonS.DeSilvaA. R.FryeV.SarkarS. (2021). Feasibility and acceptability of engaging significant adults in youth sexual and relationship violence prevention work. Violence Against Women, 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778012211034201
3.
BanyardV. L.PlanteE. G.MoynihanM. M. (2004). Bystander education: Bringing a broader community perspective to sexual violence prevention. Journal of Community Psychology, 32(1), 61–79. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.10078
4.
BanyardV. L.MoynihanM. M.PlanteE. G. (2007). Sexual violence prevention through bystander education: An experimental evaluation. Journal of Community Psychology, 35(4), 463–481. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20159
5.
BederaN. (2021). Moaning and eye contact: Men’s use of ambiguous signals in attributions of consent to their partners. Violence Against Women, 27(15–16), 3093–3313. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801221992870
6.
BennettS.BanyardV. L.GarnhartL. (2014). To act or not to act, that is the question? Barriers and facilitators of bystander intervention. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29(3), 476–496. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260513505210
7.
BerkowitzA. D. (2002). Fostering men's responsibility for preventing sexual assault. In P. A. Schewe P. A. Schewe (Ed.), Preventing violence in relationships: interventions across the life span (pp. 163–196). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10455-007.
8.
BurnS. M. (2009). A situational model of sexual assault prevention through bystander intervention. Sex Roles, 60, 779–792. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9581-5
ChoiE. U.HoggM. A. (2019). Self-uncertainty and group identification: A meta-analysis. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 23(4), 483–501. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430219846990
12.
CokerA. L.BushH. M.FisherB. S.SwanS. C.WilliamsC. M.ClearE. R.DeGueS. (2016). Multi-college bystander intervention evaluation for violence prevention. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 50(3), 295–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2015.08.034
13.
CokerA. L.Cook-CraigP. G.WilliamsC. M.FisherB. S.ClearE. R.GarciaL. S.HeggeL. M. (2011). Evaluation of green dot: An active bystander intervention to reduce sexual violence on college campuses. Violence Against Women, 17(6), 777–796. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801211410264
14.
DietzT. J.DettlafA. (2008). The impact of membership in a support group for gay, lesbian, and bisexual students. Journal of College Student Development, 12(1), 57–72. https://doi.org/10.1300/J035v12n01_06
15.
FlemingWm. M.Wiersma-MosleyJ. D. (2015). The role of alcohol consumption patterns and pro-social bystander interventions in contexts of gender violence. Violence Against Women, 21(10), 1259–1283. https://doi-org.lib-e2.lib.ttu.edu/10.1177/1077801215592721
16.
ForbesH.StarkA. M.HopkinsS. W.FiremanG. D. (2019). The effects of group membership on college students’ social exclusion of peers and bystander behavior. The Journal of Psychology, 154(1), 15–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2019.1642839
17.
FoubertJ. D.CowellE. A. (2004). Perceptions of a rape prevention program by fraternity men and male student athletes: Powerful effects and implications for changing behavior. Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, 42(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.2202/1949-6605.1411
18.
FoubertJ. D.PerryB. C. (2007). Creating lasting attitude and behavior change in fraternity members and male student athletes: The qualitative impact of empathy-based rape prevention program. Violence Against Women, 13(1), 70–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801206295125
19.
GidyczC. A.OrchowskiL. M.BerkowitzA. D. (2011). Preventing sexual aggression among college men: An evaluation of a social norms and bystander intervention program. Violence Against Women, 17(6), 720–742. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801211409727
20.
GoodboyA. K.MartinM. M. (2020). Omega over alpha for reliability estimation of unidimensional communication measures. Annals of the International Communication Association, 44(4), 422–439. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2020.1846135
21.
GrahamL. M.MennickeA.RizoC. F.WoodL.MengoC. W. (2019). Interpersonal violence prevention and response on college and university campuses: Opportunities for faculty leadership. Journal of Family Violence, 34(3), 189–198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-018-9968-1
22.
HaikalisM.LeoneR. M.ParrottD. J.DiLilloD. (2018). Sexual assault survivor reports of missed bystander opportunities: The role of alcohol, sexual objectification, and relational factors. Violence Against Women, 24(10), 123–1254. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801218781941
23.
HawleyL. R.HoschH. M.BovairdJ. A. (2014). Exploring social identity theory and the “black sheep effect” among college student-athletes and non-athletes. Journal of Sport Behavior, 37(1), 56–76.
24.
Hayes-SmithR.Hayes-SmithJ. (2009). A website content analysis of women’s resources and sexual assault literature on college campuses. Critical Criminology, 17(2), 109–123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-009-9075-y
25.
HoggM. A. (2021). Chapter 5 – Self-uncertainty and group identification: Consequences for social identity, group behavior, intergroup relations, and society. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 64, 263–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aesp.2021.04.004
HoxmeierJ. C.FlayB. R.AcockA. C. (2016). Control, norms, and attitudes: Differences between students who do and do not intervene as bystanders to sexual assault. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33(15), 2379–2401. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515625503
28.
KleinsasserA.JourilesE. N.McDonaldR.RosenfeldD. (2015). An online bystander intervention program for the prevention of sexual violence. Psychology of Violence, 5(3), 227–235. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037393
29.
LevineM.CrowtherS. (2008). The responsive bystander: How social group membership and group size can encourage as well as inhibit bystander intervention. Journal of Social Psychology, 95(6), 1429–1439. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012634
30.
LevineM.ProsserA.EvansD.ReicherS. (2005). Identity and emergency intervention: How social group membership and inclusiveness of group boundaries shape helping behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(4), 443–453. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271651
31.
LevineM.ThompsonK. (2004). Identity, place, and bystander intervention: Social categories and helping after natural disasters. Journal of Social Psychology, 144(3), 229–245. https://doi.org/10.3200/SOCP.144.3.229-245
32.
LickelB.HamiltonD.WieczorkowskaG.LewisA.ShermanS. J.UhlesA. N. (2000). Varieties of groups and the perception of group entitativity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(2), 223–246. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.78.2.223
33.
LivingstoneA. G.YoungH.MansteadA. S. R. (2011). “We drink, therefore we are”: The role of group identification and norms in sustaining and challenging heavy drinking “culture.”Group Process Intergroup Relations, 14(5), 637–649. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430210392399
34.
MabryA.TurnerM. M. (2015). Do sexual assault bystander interventions change men’s intentions?: Applying the theory of normative behavior to predicting bystander outcomes. Journal of Health Communication, 21(3), 276–292. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2015.1058437
35.
McMahonS. (2015). Call for research on bystander intervention to prevent sexual violence: The role of campus environments. American Journal of Community Psychology, 55(3-4), 472–489. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-015-9724-0
36.
McMahonS.BanyardV. L. (2012). When can I help? A conceptual framework for preventing violence through bystander intervention. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 13(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838011426015
37.
McMahonS.FarmerL. (2009). The bystander approach: Strengths-based sexual assault prevention with at-risk groups. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 19(8), 1042–1065. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911350902990304
38.
MuseusS. D. (2008). The role of ethnic student organizations in fostering African American and Asian American students’ cultural adjustment and membership at predominantly white institutions. Journal of College Student Development, 49(8), 568–586. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.0.0039
39.
MyersK. M.DavisC. W.SchreuderE. R.SeiboldD. R. (2016). Organizational identification: A mixed methods study exploring students’ relationship with their university. Communication Quarterly, 64(2), 210–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463373.2015.1103285
40.
OrchowskiL. M.EdwardsK. M.HollanderJ. A.BanyardV. L.SennC. Y.GidyczC. A. (2020). Integrating sexual assault resistance, bystander, and men’s social norms strategies to prevent sexual violence on college campuses: A call to action. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 21(4), 811–827. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838018789153
41.
PowersR. A.LeiliJ. (2017). Bar training for active bystanders: Evaluation of a community-based bystander intervention program. Violence Against Women, 24(13), 1614–1634. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801217741219
42.
ReedW. D.da SilvaS. P. (2007). The relation between college student involvement and satisfaction. Modern Psychological Studies, 12(2), 21–33. https://scholar.utc.edu/mps/vol12/iss2/3
RoutonP. W.WalkerJ. K. (2014). The impact of Greek organization membership on collegiate outcomes: Evidence from a national survey. Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics, 49, 63–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2014.02.003
45.
RoutonP. W.WalkerJ. K. (2015). Student athletes?: The impact of intercollegiate sports participation on academic outcomes. Eastern Economic Journal, 41, 592–611. https://doi.org/10.1057/eej.2014.32
46.
SalazarL. F.Vivolo-KantorA.McGroarty-KoonK. (2017). Formative research with college men to inform content and messages for a web-based sexual violence prevention program. Health Communication, 32(9), 1133–1141. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2016.1214219
47.
SantacroseL. B.LauritaA. C.MarchellT. C. (2019). Intervene: Modeling pro-social bystander behavior in college students through online video. Health Communication, 35(4), 397–409. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2018.1564956
48.
SavolainenI.KaakinenM.SirolaA.OksansenA. (2018). Addictive behaviors and psychological distress among adolescents and emerging adults: A mediating role of peer group identification. Addictive Behaviors Research, 7, 75–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2018.03.002
49.
SeabrookR. C.WardL. M.GiaccardiS. (2018). Why is fraternity membership associated with sexual assault? Exploring the roles of conformity to masculine norms, pressure to uphold masculinity, and objectification of women. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 19(1), 3–13. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000076
50.
SidaniusJ.Van LaarC.LevinS.SinclairS. (2004). Ethnic enclaves and the dynamics of social identity on the college campus: The good, the bad, and the ugly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(1), 96–110. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.87.1.96
51.
SundstromB.FerraraM.DeMariaA. L.GabelC.BoothK.CabotJ. (2018). It’s your place: Development and evaluation of an evidence-based bystander intervention campaign. Health Communication, 33(9), 1141–1150. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2017.1333561
TurnerJ. C.BrownR. J.TajfelH. (1979). Social comparison and group interest in ingroup favoritism. European Journal of Social Psychology, 9(2), 187–204. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420090207
54.
TurnerJ. C.ReynoldsK. J. (2012). Self-categorization theory. In P. A. M. Van Lange A. W. Kruglanski & T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (pp. 399–417). Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446249222.n46
55.
VallsR.PuigvertL.MelgarP.Garcia-YesteC. (2016). Breaking the silence at Spanish universities: Findings from the first study of violence against women on campuses in Spain. Violence Against Women, 22(13), 1519–1539. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801215627511
56.
van KnippenbergD.van KnippenbergB.De CremerD.HoggM. A. (2004). Leadership, self, and identity: A review and research agenda. Leadership Quarterly, 15(6), 825–856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2004.09.002
57.
WalkerJ. K.MartinN. D.HusseyA. (2015). Greek organization membership and collegiate outcomes at an elite, private university. Research in Higher Education, 56(3), 203–227. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-014-9345-8
58.
WarberK. M.TaylorM. E.MakstallerD. C. (2011). A social identity approach to the intergroup contact between fraternity and sorority members and nonmembers. Oracle: The Research Journal of the Association of Fraternity/Sorority Advisors, 6(2), 15–25. https://doi.org/10.25774/h66w-0536
59.
WebberK. L.KrylowR. B.ZhangQ. (2013). Does involvement really matter? Indicators of college student success and satisfaction. Journal of College Student Development, 54(6), 591–611. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2013.0090
