The current study used a purposive sample of 517 surveys administered to police officers at one of the five largest and most diverse U.S. cities to assess police adherence to rape myths, while considering demographic, occupational, and neurocognitive predictors. This study also examined rape myth endorsement and self-reported levels of preparedness in responding to sexual assault calls for service. Officer sex and impulsivity were significant predictors of rape myth endorsement. In addition, rape myth endorsement decreased preparedness, whereas prior specialized sexual assault training increased preparedness. Implications for policy, practice, and future research are discussed.
AhrensC. E.CampbellR.Ternier-ThamesN. K.WascoS. M.SeflT. (2007). Deciding whom to tell: Expectations and outcomes of rape survivors’ first disclosures. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 38–49.
2.
AlderdenM. A.LongL. (2016). Sexual assault victim participation in police investigations and prosecution. Violence and Victims, 31, 819–836.
3.
AlderdenM. A.UllmanS. E. (2012). Creating a more complete and current picture: Examining police and prosecutor decision-making when processing sexual assault cases. Violence Against Women, 18, 525–551.
4.
AndersonK. B.CooperH.OkamuraL. (1997). Individual differences and attitudes toward rape: A meta-analytic review. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 295–315.
5.
AskK. (2010). A survey of police officers’ and prosecutors’ beliefs about crime victim behaviors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25, 1132–1149.
6.
BarrettE. C.Hamilton-GiachritsisC. (2013). The victim as a means to an end: Detective decision making in a simulated investigation of attempted rape. Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 10, 200–218.
7.
BelseyD.KuhE.WelschR. (1980). Regression diagnostics: Identifying influential data and sources of collinearity. John Wiley.
8.
BrownJ.KingJ. (1998). Gender differences in police officers attitudes towards rape; Results of an exploratory study. Psychology, Crime & Law, 4, 265–279.
9.
BurtM. R. (1980). Cultural myths and supports for rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 217–230.
10.
CampbellB. A.MenakerT. A.KingW. R. (2015). The determination of victim credibility by adult and juvenile sexual assault investigators. Journal of Criminal Justice, 43, 29–39.
11.
CampbellR. (2008). The psychological impact of rape victims’ experiences with the legal, medical, and mental health systems. American Psychologist, 63, 702–717.
12.
CampbellR.BybeeD.TownsendS. M.ShawJ.KarimN.MarkowitzJ. (2014). The impact of sexual assault nurse examiner programs on criminal justice case outcomes: A multisite replication study. Violence Against Women, 20, 607–625.
13.
CampbellR.Fehler-CabralG. (2018). Why police “couldn’t or wouldn’t” submit sexual assault kits for forensic DNA testing: A focal concerns theory analysis of untested rape kits. Law & Society Review, 52, 73–105.
14.
CampbellR.JohnsonC. R. (1997). Police officers’ perceptions of rape: Is there consistency between state law and individual beliefs?Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 12, 255–274.
15.
DarwinkelE.PowellM.TidmarshP. (2013). Improving police officers’ perceptions of sexual offending through intensive training. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 40, 895–908.
16.
DonnerC. M.JenningsW. G. (2014). Low self-control and police deviance: Applying Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory to officer misconduct. Police Quarterly, 17, 203–225.
17.
DonnerC. M.MaskalyJ.ThompsonK. N. (2018). Self-control and the police code of silence: Examining the unwillingness to report fellow officers’ misbehavior among a multi-agency sample of police recruits. Journal of Criminal Justice, 56, 11–19.
18.
EdwardsK. M.TurchikJ. A.DardisC. M.ReynoldsN.GidyczC. A. (2011). Rape myths: History, individual and institutional-level presence, and implications for change. Sex Roles, 65, 761–773.
19.
EstrichS. (1987). Real rape. Harvard University Press.
20.
FeildH. S. (1978). Attitudes toward rape: A comparative analysis of police, rapists, crisis counselors, and citizens. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 156–179.
21.
Feldman-SummersS.PalmerG. C. (1980). Rape as viewed by judges, prosecutors, and police officers. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 7, 19–40.
22.
FishbeinM.AjzenI. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Addison-Wesley.
23.
FranklinC. A. (2011). An investigation of the relationship between self-control and alcohol-induced sexual assault victimization. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 38, 263–285.
24.
FranklinC. A.BouffardL. A.PrattT. C. (2012). Sexual assault on the college campus: Fraternity affiliation, male peer support, and low self-control. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 39, 1457–1480.
25.
FranklinC. A.FranklinT. W.NoblesM. R.KercherG. A. (2012). Assessing the effect of routine activity theory and self-control on property, personal, and sexual assault victimization. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 39, 1296–1315.
26.
FranklinC. A.GarzaA. D.GoodsonA.BouffardL. A. (2019). Police perceptions of crime victim behaviors: A trend analysis exploring mandatory training and knowledge of sexual and domestic violence survivors’ trauma responses. Crime & Delinquency, 66(8), 1055–1086.
27.
GauJ. (2010). Basic principles and practices of structural equation modeling in criminal justice and criminology research. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 21, 136–151.
28.
Goodman-DelahuntyJ.GrahamK. (2011). The influence of victim intoxication and victim attire on police responses to sexual assault. Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 8, 22–40.
29.
GottesmanS. T. (1977). Police attitudes toward rape before and after a training program. Journal of Psychiatric Nursing and Mental Health Services, 15, 14–18.
30.
GottfredsonM. R.HirschiT. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford University Press.
31.
GottfredsonM. R.GottfredsonD. M. (1988). Decision making in criminal justice: Toward the rational exercise of discretion (2nd ed.). Plenum Press.
32.
GrahamJ. W. (2009). Missing data analysis: Making it work in the real world. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 549–576.
33.
GrasmickH. G.TittleC. R.BursikR. J.Jr.ArneklevB. J. (1993). Testing the core empirical implications of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 30, 5–29.
34.
HansenN. B.HansenM.NielsenL. H.BramsenR. H.ElklitA.CampbellR. (2018). Rape crimes: Are victims’ acute psychological distress and perceived social support associated with police case decision and victim willingness to participate in the investigation?Violence Against Women, 24, 684–696.
35.
HineB.MurphyA. (2019). The influence of “high” vs. “low” rape myth acceptance on police officers’ judgements of victim and perpetrator responsibility, and rape authenticity. Journal of Criminal Justice, 60, 100–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2018.08.001
36.
HuL. T.BentlerP. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55.
37.
JohnsonB. E.KuckD. L.SchanderP. R. (1997). Rape myth acceptance and sociodemographic characteristics: A multidimensional analysis. Sex Roles, 36, 693–707.
38.
KaiserK. A.O’NealE. N.SpohnC. (2017). “Victim refuses to cooperate”: A focal concerns analysis of victim cooperation in sexual assault cases. Victims & Offenders, 12, 297–322.
39.
KatzJ. (1995). Reconstructing masculinity in the locker room: The Mentors in Violence Prevention Project. Harvard Educational Review, 65, 163–175.
40.
KatzJ. (2006). Macho paradox: Why some men hurt women and how all men can help. Sourcebooks.
41.
KerstetterW. A. (1990). Gateway to justice: Police and prosecutorial response to sexual assaults against women. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 81, 267–313.
42.
KimM.HunterJ. (1993). Relationships among attitudes, behavioral intentions, and behavior. Communications Research, 20, 331–364.
43.
KlineR. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford Press.
44.
KossM. P.GoodmanL. A.BrowneA.FitzgeraldL. F.KeitaG. P.RussoN. F. (1994). No safe haven: Male violence against women at home, at work, and in the community. American Psychological Association.
45.
LaFreeG. D. (1981). Official reactions to social problems: Police decisions in sexual assault cases. Social Problems, 28, 582–594.
46.
LaFreeG. D. (1989). Rape and criminal justice. Wadsworth.
47.
LeDouxJ. C.HazelwoodR. R. (1985). Police attitudes and beliefs toward rape. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 13, 211–220.
48.
LeeJ.LeeC.LeeW. (2012). Attitudes toward women, rape myths, and rape perceptions among male police officers in South Korea. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36, 365–376.
49.
LonswayK. A.ArchambaultJ. (2012). The “justice gap” for sexual assault cases: Future directions for research and reform. Violence Against Women, 18, 145–168.
50.
LonswayK. A.FitzgeraldL. F. (1994). Rape myths: In review. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 133–164.
51.
LonswayK. A.WelchS.FitzgeraldL. F. (2001). Police training in sexual assault response: Process, outcomes, and elements of change. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 28, 695–730.
52.
MaddoxL.LeeD.BarkerC. (2012). The impact of psychological consequences of rape on rape case attrition: The police perspective. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 27, 33–44.
53.
MenakerT. A.FranklinC. A. (2018). Prostitution myth endorsement: Assessing the effects of sexism, sexual victimization history, pornography, and self-control. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 42, 313–325.
54.
MennickeA.AndersonD.OehmeK.KennedyS. (2014). Law enforcement officers’ perception of rape and rape victims: A multimethod study. Violence and Victims, 29, 814–827.
55.
MonroeL. M.KinneyL. M.WeistM. D.DafeamekporD. S.DantzlerJ.ReynoldsM. W. (2005). The experience of sexual assault: Findings from a statewide victim needs assessment. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 767–776.
56.
MorabitoM. S.PattavinaA.WilliamsL. M. (2019). It all just piles up: Challenges to victim credibility accumulate to influence sexual assault case processing. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34, 3151–3170. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516669164
57.
MurphyA.HineB. (2019). Investigating the demographic and attitudinal predictors of rape myth acceptance in UK Police officers: Developing an evidence-base for training and professional development. Psychology, Crime & Law, 25, 69–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2018.1503663
58.
O’NealE. N. (2017). Victim cooperation in intimate partner sexual assault cases: A mixed methods examination. Justice Quarterly, 34, 1014–1043.
59.
O’NealE. N. (2019). “Victim is not credible”: The influence of rape culture on police perceptions of sexual assault complainants. Justice Quarterly, 36, 127–160. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2017.1406977
60.
O’NealE. N.SpohnC. (2017). When the perpetrator is a partner: Arrest and charging decisions in intimate partner sexual assault cases—A focal concerns analysis. Violence Against Women, 23, 707–729.
61.
PageA. D. (2007). Behind the blue line: Investigating police officers’ attitudes toward rape. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 22, 22–32.
62.
PageA. D. (2008). Gateway to reform? Policy implications of police officers’ attitudes toward rape. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 33, 44–58.
63.
PageA. D. (2010). True colors: Police officers and rape myth acceptance. Feminist Criminology, 5, 315–334.
64.
ParrattK. A.PinaA. (2017). From “real rape” to real justice: A systematic review of police officers’ rape myth beliefs. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 34, 68–83.
65.
PattersonD. (2011). The linkage between secondary victimization by law enforcement and rape case outcomes. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 328–347.
66.
PayneD. L.LonswayK. A.FitzgeraldL. F. (1999). Rape myth acceptance: Exploration of its structure and its measurement using theIllinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale. Journal of Research in Personality, 33, 27–68.
67.
PrattT. C.CullenF. T. (2000). The empirical status of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime: A meta-analysis. Criminology, 38, 931–964.
68.
PrattT. C.TurnovicJ. J.FoxK. A.WrightK. A. (2014). Self-control and victimization: A meta-analysis. Criminology, 52, 87–116.
69.
RichK.SeffrinP. (2012). Police interviews of sexual assault reporters: Do attitudes matter?Violence and Victims, 27, 263–279.
70.
RichK.SeffrinP. (2013). Police officers’ collaboration with rape victim advocates: Barriers and facilitators. Violence and Victims, 28, 681–696.
71.
RichK.SeffrinP. (2014). Birds of a feather or fish out of water? Policewomen taking rape reports. Feminist Criminology, 9, 137–159.
72.
SchreckC. J. (1999). Criminal victimization and low self-control: An extension and test of a general theory of crime. Justice Quarterly, 16, 633–654.
73.
ShawJ.CampbellR.CainD.FeeneyH. (2017). Beyond surveys and scales: How rape myths manifest in sexual assault police records. Psychology of Violence, 7, 602–614.
74.
SingletonR. A.StraitsB. C. (2010). Approaches to social research (5th ed.). Oxford University Press.
75.
SleathE.BullR. (2012). Comparing rape victim and perpetrator blaming in a police officer sample: Differences between police officers with and without special training. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 39, 642–661.
76.
SleathE.BullR. (2015). A brief report on rape myth acceptance: Differences between police officers, law students, and psychology students in the United Kingdom. Violence and Victims, 30, 136–147.
77.
SleathE.BullR. (2017). Police perceptions of rape victims and the impact on case decision making: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 34, 102–112.
78.
SmithM.WilkesN.BouffardL. A. (2016). Rape myth adherence among campus law enforcement officers. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 43, 539–556.
79.
SpohnC.TellisK. (2012). The criminal justice system’s response to sexual violence. Violence Against Women, 18, 169–192.
80.
SpohnC.TellisK. (2014). Policing and prosecuting sexual assault: Inside the criminal justice system. Lynne Rienner.
81.
SpohnC.TellisK. (2019). Sexual assault case outcomes: Disentangling the overlapping decisions of police and prosecutors. Justice Quarterly, 36, 383–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2018.1429645
82.
SuarezE.GadallaT. M. (2010). Stop blaming the victim: A meta-analysis on rape myths. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25, 2010–2035.
83.
TabachnickB. G.FidellL. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics. Allyn & Bacon.
84.
TascaM.RodriguezN.SpohnC.KossM. P. (2013). Police decision making in sexual assault cases: Predictors of suspect identification and arrest. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28, 1157–1177.
VenemaR. M. (2018). Police officers’ rape myth acceptance: Examining the role of officer characteristics, estimates of false reporting, and social desirability bias. Violence and Victims, 33, 176–200.
87.
VenemaR. M. (2019). Making judgments: How blame mediates the influence of rape myth acceptance in police response to sexual assault. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34, 2697–2722.
88.
WellsW. (2016). Some considerations when making decisions about prioritizing sexual assault kits for forensic testing. Criminology & Public Policy, 15, 585–592.
89.
WentzE.ArchboldC. A. (2012). Police perceptions of sexual assault victims: Exploring the intra-female gender hostility thesis. Police Quarterly, 15, 25–44.
90.
WrightJ. P.BeaverK. M. (2005). Do parents matter in creating self-control in their children? A genetically informed test of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s theory of low self-control. Criminology, 43, 1169–1202.
