This study estimates the lifetime prevalence of physical violence during pregnancy and examines risk and protective factors among women (N = 390) attending reproductive health clinics in Jordan. Approximately 15% reported physical violence during pregnancy. The husband was the sole perpetrator in 83% of the cases. A high frequency of quarreling, the husband's use of alcohol, attitudes supportive of a woman's duty to obey her husband, infrequent communication between the respondent and her family, and exposure to violence as a child increased the risk of violence. Consanguinity (marriage to a blood relative) and higher education levels were protective against violence during pregnancy.
Aamiry, A. (1994). Domestic violence against women in Jordan. Al-Raida, 11(65-66), 33-37.
2.
Afifi, T.O., Enns, M.W., Cox, B.J., Asmundson, G.J., Stein, M.B., & Sareen, J. (2008). Population attributable fractions of psychiatric disorders and suicide ideation and attempts associated with adverse childhood experiences. American Journal of Public Health, 98, 946-952.
3.
Boy, A., & Salihu, H.M. (2004). Intimate partner violence and birth outcomes: A systematic review. International Journal of Fertility and Women's Medicine, 49(4), 159-164.
4.
Brecklin, L.R. (2002). The role of perpetrator alcohol use in the injury outcomes of intimate assaults. Journal of Family Violence , 17, 185-197.
5.
Bushman, B.J., & Cooper, H.M. (1990). Effects of alcohol on human aggression: An integrative research review. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 341-354.
6.
Campbell, J., Garcia-Moreno, C., & Sharps, P. (2004). Abuse during pregnancy in industrialized and developing countries. Violence Against Women, 10, 770-789.
7.
Chibber, R., Khwaja, S., Al-Sibai, H., Al-Mulhim, A., & Abdul, H. (2002). Prevalence and complications of physical violence during pregnancy. European Journal of Obstetrics Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, 103, 26-29.
8.
Clark, C.J. (2003). Gender-based violence research initiatives in refugee, internally displaced, and post-conflict settings: Lessons learned . Cambridge, MA: Mellon-MIT Inter-University Program on NGOs and Forced Migration.
9.
Clark, C.J., Bloom, D., Hill, A., & Silverman, J. (in press). A prevalence estimate of intimate partner violence in Jordan . Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal.
10.
Cwikel, J., Lev-Wiesel, R., & Al-Krenawi, A. (2003). The physical and psychosocial health of Bedouin Arab women of the Negev area of Israel: The impact of high fertility and pervasive domestic violence. Violence Against Women, 9, 240-257.
11.
Darweesh, M. (2001). Family violence in Zarqa city: Descriptive study . Zarqa, Jordan: Family Guidance and Awareness Center.
12.
Department of Statistics & ORC Macro. ( 2003). Jordan Population and Family Health Survey 2002. Calverton, MD: Author.
13.
Efetie, E.R., & Salami, H.A. (2007). Domestic violence on pregnant women in Abuja, Nigeria. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 27, 379-382.
14.
El-Zanaty, F., & Way, A. (2006). Egypt Demographic and Health Survey 2005. Cairo, Egypt: Ministry of Health and Population, National Population Council, El-Zanaty and Associates, and ORC Macro.
15.
Faramarzi, M., Esmailzadeh, S., & Mosavi, S. (2005). Prevalence and determinants of intimate partner violence in Babol city, Islamic Republic of Iran. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 11, 870-879.
16.
Fikree, F.F., Jafarey, S.N., Korejo, R., Afshan, A., & Durocher, J.M. (2006). Intimate partner violence before and during pregnancy: Experiences of postpartum women in Karachi, Pakistan . Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association, 56, 252-257.
17.
Garcia-Moreno, C. (1999). Violence against women, gender and health equity . Cambridge, MA: World Health Organization and Harvard Center for Population and Development Studies.
18.
Garcia-Moreno, C. (2002). Violence against women: Consolidating a public health agenda. In G. Sen, A. George, & P. Östlin (Eds.), Engendering international health: The challenge of equity (pp. 111-142). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
19.
Garcia-Moreno, C., Jansen, H., Ellsberg, M., Heise, L., & Watts, C. (2005). WHO Multi-Country Study on Women's Health and Domestic Violence Against Women: Initial results on prevalence, health outcomes and women's responses. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
20.
Gewirtz, A.H., & Edleson, J.L. (2007). Young children's exposure to intimate partner violence: Towards a developmental risk and resilience framework for research and intervention. Journal of Family Violence, 22, 151-163.
21.
Haj-Yahia, M.M. (2002). Beliefs of Jordanian women about wife-beating . Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26, 282-291.
22.
Hammoury, N., & Khawaja, M. (2007). Screening for domestic violence during pregnancy in an antenatal clinic in Lebanon. European Journal of Public Health, 17, 605-606.
23.
Heise, L. (1998). Violence against women: An integrated, ecological framework. Violence Against Women, 4, 262-290.
24.
Heise, L., & Garcia-Moreno, C. (2002). Violence by intimate partners. In E. G. Krug, L. L. Dahlberg, J. A. Mercy, A. B. Zwi, & R. Lozano (Eds.), World report on violence and health (pp. 87-122). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
25.
Hotaling, G.T., & Sugarman, D.B. (1986). An analysis of risk markers in husband to wife violence: The current state of knowledge. Violence & Victims, 1, 101-124.
26.
Humphreys, J., Parker, B., & Campbell, J.C. (2001). Intimate partner violence against women. Annual Review of Nursing Research, 19, 275-306.
27.
Jasinski, J.L. (2004). Pregnancy and domestic violence: A review of the literature. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 5, 47-64.
28.
Jeyaseelan, L., Sadowski, L.S., Kumar, S., Hassan, F., Ramiro, L., & Vizcarra, B. (2004). World studies of abuse in the family environment-Risk factors for physical intimate partner violence. Injury Control & Safety Promotion, 11, 117-124.
29.
Karaoglu, L., Celbis, O., Ercan, C., Ilgar, M., Pehlivan, E., Gunes, G., et al. (2006). Physical, emotional and sexual violence during pregnancy in Malatya, Turkey. European Journal of Public Health, 16, 149-156.
30.
Keenan, C.K., El-Hadad, A., & Balian, S.A. (1998). Factors associated with domestic violence in low-income Lebanese families. Image Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 30, 357-362.
31.
Khawaja, M. (2004). Domestic violence in refugee camps in Jordan. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 86, 67-69.
32.
Khawaja, M., & Barazi, R. (2005). Prevalence of wife beating in Jordanian refugee camps: Reports by men and women. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 59, 840-841.
33.
Kimerling, R., Alvarez, J., Pavao, J., Kaminski, A., & Baumrind, N. (2007). Epidemiology and consequences of women's revictimization . Women's Health Issues, 17, 101-106.
34.
Kishor, S., & Johnson, K. (2004). Profiling domestic violence: A multi-country study . Calverton, MD: ORC Macro.
35.
Leung, W.C., Leung, T.W., Lam, Y.Y., & Ho, P.C. (1999). The prevalence of domestic violence against pregnant women in a Chinese community. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 66, 23-30.
36.
Lewis-O'Connor, A., Sharps, P.W., Humphreys, J., Gary, F.A., & Campbell, J. (2006). Children exposed to intimate partner violence . In M. M. Feerick & G. B. Silverman (Eds.), Children exposed to violence (pp. 3-28). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
37.
Nasir, K., & Hyder, A.A. (2003). Violence against pregnant women in developing countries: Review of evidence. European Journal of Public Health, 13, 105-107.
38.
Nasser, L., Belbeisi, B., & Atiyat, D. (1998). Violence against women in Jordan: Demographic characteristics of victims and perpetrators. Amman: Jordan Press Foundation "Al Rai."
39.
Norton, R.N., & Morgan, M.Y. (1989). The role of alcohol in mortality and morbidity from interpersonal violence. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 24, 565-576.
40.
Pallitto, C.C., Campbell, J.C., & O'Campo, P. (2005). Is intimate partner violence associated with unintended pregnancy? A review of the literature. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 6, 217-235.
41.
Rabin, B., Markus, E., & Voghera, N. (1999). A comparative study of Jewish and Arab battered women presenting in the emergency room of a general hospital. Social Work in Health Care, 29(2), 69-84.
42.
Runyan, D., Wattam, C., Ikeda, R., Hassan, F., & Ramiro, L. (2002). Child abuse and neglect by parents and other caregivers . In E. G. Krug, L. L. Dahlberg, J. A. Mercy, A. B. Zwi, & R. Lozano (Eds.), World report on violence and health (pp. 57-86). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
43.
Russo, N.F., & Pirlott, A. (2006). Gender-based violence: Concepts, methods, and findings. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1087, 178-205.
44.
Sagrestano, L.M., Carroll, D., Rodriguez, A.C., & Nuwayhid, B. (2004). Demographic, psychological, and relationship factors in domestic violence during pregnancy in a sample of low-income women of color . Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28, 309-322.
45.
Silverman, J.G., Gupta, J., Decker, M.R., Kapur, N., & Raj, A. (2007). Intimate partner violence and unwanted pregnancy, miscarriage, induced abortion, and stillbirth among a national sample of Bangladeshi women. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics Gynaecology , 114, 1246-1252.
46.
Straus, M.A., Gelles, R.J., & Steinmetz, S.K. (1981). Behind closed doors: Violence in the American family. Garden City, NY: Anchor.
47.
Taylor, S.P., & Leonard, K.E. (1983). Alcohol and human physical aggression. In R. G. Geen & E. I. Donnerstein (Eds.), Aggression: Theoretical and empirical reviews (Vol. 2, pp. 77-101). New York: Academic Press.
48.
Thompson, M.P., & Kingree, J.B. (2004). The role of alcohol use in intimate partner violence and non-intimate partner violence. Violence & Victims , 19, 63-74.
49.
Tjaden, P., & Thonnes, N. (2000). Full report of the prevalence, incidence, and consequences of violence against women: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention .
50.
United Nations. (1993). Declaration on the elimination of violence against women (No. A/RES/48/104). New York: Author.
51.
United Nations. (1994, September). International Conference on Population and Development, Cairo, 5-13 September 1994. Paper presented at the International Conference on Population and Development, Cairo, Egypt.
52.
United Nations. (1995). Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women: Platform for action, Beijing, 4-15 September 1995 (No. A/CONF.177/20). New York: Author.
53.
Ward, J. (2002). If not now, when? Addressing gender-based violence in refugee, internally displaced, and post-conflict settings: A global overview . New York: Reproductive Health for Refugees Consortium.
