Little research has been conducted to determine which characteristics and experiences affect women’s choices to enroll in self-defense/assertiveness training. The present study examined the role of self-defense/assertiveness training in women’s lives using data from 3,187 female college students. Logistic regression analyses demonstrated that women with multiple forms of childhood victimization (e.g., both child sexual and physical abuse) were almost twice as likely to participate in self-defense/assertiveness training. Training participants also reported more positive instrumental traits (e.g., independence) and less sexual conservatism than nonparticipants. Implications for future research evaluating self-defense programs are discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Amick, A. E., & Calhoun, K. S. (1987). Resistance to sexual aggression: Personality, attitudinal, and situational factors. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 16, 153-163.
2.
Anderson, K. M. (1998). Healing the fighting spirit: Combining self-defense training and group therapy for women who have experienced incest. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
3.
Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561-571.
4.
Burnett, R. C., Templer, D. I., & Barker, P. C. (1985). Personality variables and circumstances of sexual assault predictive of a woman’s resistance. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 14, 183-188.
5.
Burt, M. R. (1980). Cultural myths and supports for rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 217-230.
6.
Classen, C., Field, N. P., Koopman, C., Nevill-Manning, K., & Spiegel, D. (2001). Interpersonal problems and their relationship to sexual revictimization among women sexually abused in childhood. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16, 495-509.
7.
Cohn, E. S., Kidder, L. H., & Harvey, J. (1978). Crime prevention vs. victimization prevention: The psychology of two different reactions. Victimology: An International Journal, 3, 285-296.
8.
Corbin, W. R., Bernat, J. A., Calhoun, K. S., McNair, L. D., & Seals, K. L. (2001). The role of alcohol expectancies and alcohol consumption among sexually victimized and nonvictimized college women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16, 297-311.
9.
Cox, D. S. (1999). An analysis of two forms of self-defense training and their impact on women’s sense of personal safety self-efficacy. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA.
10.
Cummings, N. (1992). Self-defense training for college women. Journal of American College Health, 40, 183-188.
11.
Devlin, A. S. (2000). City behavior and precautionary measures. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30, 2158-2172.
12.
Donaldson, C. S. (1978). The effects of self-defense training on women’s self-esteem and locus of control orientation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, Los Angeles, CA.
13.
Finkenberg, M. E. (1990). Effect of participation in Taekwondo on college women’s self-concept. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 71, 891-894.
14.
Follansbee, P. A. (1982). Effects of a self-defense program on women’s psychological health and well-being. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.
15.
Frost, H. L. (1991). “Model Mugging”: A way to reduce women’s victimization. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas, Lawrence.
16.
Gaddis, J. W. (1990). Women’s empowerment through Model Mugging: Breaking the cycle of social violence. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara.
17.
Guthrie, S. R. (1995). Liberating the Amazon: Feminism and the martial arts. Women and Therapy, 16, 107-119.
18.
Henderson, M. C. (1997). Women’s self-defense training: An applied analysis of self-efficacy theory. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Loyola University of Chicago, Chicago, IL.
19.
Hosmer, D. W., & Lemeshow, S. (1989). Applied logistic regression. New York: John Wiley.
20.
Huddleston, S. (1991). Prior victimization experiences and subsequent self-protective behavior as evidenced by personal choice of physical activity courses. Psychology: A Journal of Human Behavior, 28, 47-51.
21.
Kidder, L. H., Boell, J. L., & Moyer, M. M. (1983). Rights consciousness and victimization prevention: Personal defense and assertiveness training. Journal of Social Issues, 39, 155-170.
22.
Koss, M. P., & Gidycz, C. A. (1985). Sexual Experiences Survey: Reliability and validity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, 422-423.
23.
Koss, M. P., Gidycz, C. A., & Wisniewski, N. (1987). The scope of rape: Incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher education students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 162-170.
24.
Koss, M. P., & Oros, C. J. (1982). Sexual Experiences Survey: A research instrument investigating sexual aggression and victimization. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50, 455-457.
25.
Lidsker, J. (1991). Women and self-defense training: A study of psychological changes experienced by participants in relation to assault history. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Pacific Graduate School of Psychology, Palo Alto, CA.
26.
Mallon, S. D. K. (2000). Conceptualization of acquaintance rape and resistance strategies with in a constructivist self-development theory framework. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT.
27.
Marx, B. P., Calhoun, K. S., Wilson, A. E., & Meyerson, L. A. (2001). Sexual revictimization prevention: An outcome evaluation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 25-32.
28.
Mastria, M. A. (1975). A study of assertiveness as a function of training in rape prevention and assertive training. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS.
29.
McCaughey, M. (1997). Real knockouts: The physical feminism of women’s self-defense. New York: New York University Press.
30.
McCaughey, M. (1998). The fighting spirit: Women’s self-defense training and the discourse of sexed embodiment. Gender & Society, 12, 277-300.
31.
Messman, T. L., & Long, P. J. (1996). Child sexual abuse and its relationship to revictimization in adult women: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 16, 397-420.
32.
Messman-Moore, T. L., & Long, P. J. (2000). Child sexual abuse and revictimization in the form of adult sexual abuse, adult physical abuse, and adult psychological maltreatment. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 489-502.
33.
Michener, S. O. (1996). An analysis of rape aggression defense as a method of self-empowerment for women. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Walden University, Minneapolis, MN.
34.
Miller, R. G. (1966). Simultaneous statistical inference. New York: McGraw-Hill.
35.
Murphy, S. M., Kilpatrick, D. G., Amick-McMullan, A., Veronen, L. J., Paduhovich, J., Best, C. L., et al. (1988). Current psychological functioning of child sexual assault survivors: A community study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 3, 55-79.
36.
Norris, J., Nurius, P. S., & Dimeff, L. A. (1996). Through her eyes: Factors affecting women’s perceptions of and resistance to acquaintance sexual aggression threat. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 123-145.
37.
Norris, J., Nurius, P. S., & Graham, T. L. (1999). When a date changes from fun to dangerous: Factors affecting women’s ability to distinguish. Violence Against Women, 5, 230-250.
38.
Nurius, P. S., Norris, J., Dimeff, L. A., & Graham, T. L. (1996). Expectations regarding acquaintance sexual aggression among sorority and fraternity members. Sex Roles, 35, 427-444.
39.
Ozer, E. M., & Bandura, A. (1990). Mechanisms governing empowerment effects: A self-efficacy analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 472-486.
40.
Peretz, M. E. (1991). The effects of psychotherapy and self-defense training on recovery of survivors of acquaintance and stranger rape. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, Los Angeles.
41.
Resick, P. A., Jordan, C. G., Girelli, S. A., Hutter, C. K., & Marhoefer-Dvorak, S. (1988). A comparative outcome study of behavioral group therapy for sexual assault victims. Behavior Therapy, 19, 385-401.
42.
Rowe, N. P. (1993). Self-defense training: An empowerment process for women. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, California Institute of Integral Studies, San Francisco, CA.
43.
Schuiteman, J. A. (1990). Self-defense training and its contributions to the healing process for survivors of sexual assault. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing.
44.
Sedlacek, D. L. (2000). Gender role adherence, martial arts training, self-defense myths, and expectancies regarding attack: Implications for sexual assault prevention. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH.
45.
Selkin, J. (1978). Protecting personal space: Victim and resister reactions to assaultive rape. Journal of Community Psychology, 6, 263-268.
46.
Shim, D. J. (1998). Self-defense training, physical self-efficacy, body image, and avoidant behavior in women. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Boston University, Boston, MA.
47.
Smith, D. R. (1983). A program evaluation: The effects of women’s self-defense training upon efficacy expectancies, behaviors, and personality variables. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing.
48.
Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R. L., & Holahan, C. K. (1979). Negative and positive components of psychological masculinity and femininity and their relationships to self-reports of neurotic and acting out behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1673-1682.
49.
Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., & Luschene, R. E. (1970). State Trait Anxiety Inventory (Self-Evaluation Questionnaire). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
50.
Weitlauf, J. C., Smith, R. E., & Cervone, D. (2000). Generalization effects of coping-skills training: Influence of self-defense training on women’s efficacy beliefs, assertiveness, and aggression. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 625-633.
51.
Wilson, A. E., Calhoun, K. S., & Bernat, J. A. (1999). Risk recognition and trauma-related symptoms among sexually revictimized women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 705-710.
