This study evaluated how continuities and discontinuities in the intergenerational transmission of maltreatment affect offspring psychopathology. Data from a multigenerational prospective, longitudinal study were used to compare the severity of offspring psychopathology in families with no history of maltreatment (controls) and those in which parents, offspring, or both experienced childhood maltreatment (cycle breakers, initiators, and maintainers, respectively). Participants included 454 parents (Mage = 47.1, SDage = 3.4) and their 697 offspring (Mage = 22.3, SDage = 6.3). Offspring of cycle breakers reported less psychopathology than offspring of cycle maintainers and did not report more psychopathology than offspring of controls. Offspring of cycle initiators and maintainers reported comparable levels of psychopathology. Results suggest that breaking the cycle of maltreatment buffers offspring from risk for psychopathology associated with parental maltreatment, with no enduring or additive effects of maltreatment across generations. Our findings highlight the need for maltreatment prevention programs and further research to identify conditions and characteristics that reduce the probability of intergenerational transmission.
AltafimE. R. P.LinharesM. B. M. (2016). Universal violence and child maltreatment prevention programs for parents: A systematic review. Psychosocial Intervention, 25(1), 27–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psi.2015.10.003
2.
BartlettJ. D.KotakeC.FauthR.EasterbrooksM. A. (2017). Intergenerational transmission of child abuse and neglect: Do maltreatment type, perpetrator, and substantiation status matter? Child Abuse & Neglect, 63, 84–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.11.021
3.
BeckA. T.SteerR. A. (1993). Beck anxiety inventory manual. Psychological Corporation.
4.
BerlinL. J.AppleyardK.DodgeK. A. (2011). Intergenerational continuity in child maltreatment: Mediating mechanisms and implications for prevention. Child Development, 82(1), 162–176. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01547.x
5.
BerzenskiS. R.YatesT. M.EgelandB. (2014). A multidimensional view of continuity in intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment. In KorbinJ. E.KrugmanR. D. (Eds), Handbook of child maltreatment (pp. 115–129). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7208-3_6
6.
BifulcoA.MoranP. M.BallC.JacobsC.BainesR.BunnA.CavaginJ. (2002). Childhood adversity, parental vulnerability and disorder: Examining inter-generational transmission of risk. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43(8), 1075–1086. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00234
7.
BlazeJ.RothT. L. (2015). Evidence from clinical and animal model studies of the long-term and transgenerational impact of stress on DNA methylation. Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology, 43, 76–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semcdb.2015.04.004
8.
Bosquet EnlowM.EnglundM. M.EgelandB. (2018). Maternal childhood maltreatment history and child mental health: Mechanisms in intergenerational effects. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 47(sup1), S47–S62. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1144189
9.
BrancoM. S. S.AltafimE. R. P.LinharesM. B. M. (2021). Universal intervention to strengthen parenting and prevent child maltreatment: Updated systematic review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380211013131
10.
CaspiA.HoutsR. M.BelskyD. W.Goldman-MellorS. J.HarringtonH.IsraelS.MeierM. H.RamrakhaS.ShalevI.PoultonR.MoffittT. E. (2014). The p factor: One general psychopathology factor in the structure of psychiatric disorders?. Clinical Psychological Science, 2(2), 119–137. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702613497473
11.
ChenM.ChanK. L. (2016). Effects of parenting programs on child maltreatment prevention: A meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 17(1), 88–104. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838014566718
12.
ChoiK. W.HoutsR.ArseneaultL.ParianteC.SikkemaK. J.MoffittT. E. (2019). Maternal depression in the intergenerational transmission of childhood maltreatment and its sequelae: Testing postpartum effects in a longitudinal birth cohort. Development and Psychopathology, 31(1), 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579418000032
13.
Conrad-HiebnerA.ByramE. (2020). The temporal impact of economic insecurity on child maltreatment: A systematic review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 21(1), 157–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838018756122
14.
CurrieJ.WidomC. S. (2010). Long-term consequences of child abuse and neglect on adult economic well-being. Child Maltreatment, 15(2), 111–120. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559509355316
15.
DaneseA.WidomC. S. (2020). Objective and subjective experiences of child maltreatment and their relationships with psychopathology. Nature Human Behaviour, 4 (8), 811–818. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0880-3
16.
DinklerL.LundströmS.GajwaniR.LichtensteinP.GillbergC.MinnisH. (2017). Maltreatment-associated neurodevelopmental disorders: a co-twin control analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58(6), 691–701. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12682
17.
DixonL.BrowneK.Hamilton-GiachritsisC. (2009). Patterns of risk and protective factors in the intergenerational cycle of maltreatment. Journal of Family Violence, 24(2), 111–122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-008-9215-2
18.
DodgeK. A. (2020). Annual Research Review: Universal and targeted strategies for assigning interventions to achieve population impact. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 61(3), 255–267. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13141
19.
DodgeK. A.GoodmanW. B. (2019). Universal reach at birth: Family connects. The Future of Children, 29(1), 41–60. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2019.0003
20.
DodgeK. A.GoodmanW. B.MurphyR. A.O’DonnellK.SatoJ.GuptillS. (2014). Implementation and randomized controlled trial evaluation of universal postnatal nurse home visiting. American Journal of Public Health, 104(S1), S136–S143. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301361
21.
FortsonB. L.KlevensJ.MerrickM. T.GilbertL. K.AlexanderS. P. (2016). Preventing child abuse and neglect: A technical package for policy, norm, and programmatic activities. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
22.
GilbertR.WidomC. S.BrowneK.FergussonD.WebbE.JansonS. (2009). Burden and consequences of child maltreatment in high-income countries. Lancet, 373(9657), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(08)61706-7
23.
GreeneC. A.HaisleyL.WallaceC.FordJ. D. (2020). Intergenerational effects of childhood maltreatment: A systematic review of the parenting practices of adult survivors of childhood abuse, neglect, and violence. Clinical Psychology Review, 80, 101891. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101891
HerrenkohlT. I.HongS.KlikaJ. B.HerrenkohlR. C.RussoM. J. (2013). Developmental impacts of child abuse and neglect related to adult mental health, substance use, and physical health. Journal of Family Violence, 28(2), 191–199. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-012-9474-9
26.
JaffeeS. R.BowesL.Ouellet-MorinI.FisherH. L.MoffittT. E.MerrickM. T.ArseneaultL. (2013). Safe, stable, nurturing relationships break the intergenerational cycle of abuse: A prospective nationally representative cohort of children in the United Kingdom. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53(4), S4–S10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.04.007
27.
JaffeeS. R.CaspiA.MoffittT. E.Polo-TomasM.PriceT. S.TaylorA. (2004). The limits of child effects: Evidence for genetically mediated child effects on corporal punishment but not on physical maltreatment. Developmental Psychology, 40(6), 1047–1058. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.1047
28.
JaffeeS. R.TakizawaR.ArseneaultL. (2017). Buffering effects of safe, supportive, and nurturing relationships among women with childhood histories of maltreatment. Psychological Medicine, 47(15), 2628–2639. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291717001027
29.
HardenB. J.SimonsC.Johnson-MotoyamaM.BarthR. (2020). The child maltreatment prevention landscape: Where are we now, and where should we go?. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 692(1), 97–118. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716220978361
KovacsM. (2003). Children’s depression inventory. Multi-Health Systems, Inc.
32.
LiM.D’ArcyC.MengX. (2016). Maltreatment in childhood substantially increases the risk of adult depression and anxiety in prospective cohort studies: Systematic review, meta-analysis, and proportional attributable fractions. Psychological Medicine, 46(4), 717–730. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291715002743
33.
LindertJ.von EhrensteinO. S.GrashowR.GalG.BraehlerE.WeisskopfM. G. (2014). Sexual and physical abuse in childhood is associated with depression and anxiety over the life course: Systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Public Health, 59(2), 359–372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-013-0519-5
34.
MadiganS.CyrC.EirichR.FearonR. P.LyA.RashC.PooleJ. C.AlinkL. R. A.2019). Testing the cycle of maltreatment hypothesis: Meta-analytic evidence of the intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment. Development and Psychopathology, 31(1), 23–51. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579418001700
35.
MoffittT. E.CaspiA. (1998). Annotation: Implications of violence between intimate partners for child psychologists and psychiatrists. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39(2), 137–144. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00308
36.
NegriffS.MolinaA. P.HackmanD. A. (2020). Parental exposure to childhood maltreatment and offspring’s mental health: Investigating pathways through parental adversity and offspring exposure to maltreatment. Child Maltreatment, 25(4), 422–432. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559520912342
37.
PanischL. S.LaBrenzC. A.LawsonJ.GerlachB.TennantP. S.NuluS.FaulknerM. (2020). Relationships between adverse childhood experiences and protective factors among parents at-risk for child maltreatment. Children and Youth Services Review, 110, 104816. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.104816
38.
PlantD. T.BarkerE. D.WatersC. S.PawlbyS.ParianteC. M. (2013). Intergenerational transmission of maltreatment and psychopathology: The role of antenatal depression. Psychological Medicine, 43(3), 519–528. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291712001298
39.
PrinzR. J.SandersM. R.ShapiroC. J.WhitakerD. J.LutzkerJ. R. (2009). Population-based prevention of child maltreatment: The U.S. Triple P system population trial. Prevention Science, 10(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-009-0123-3
40.
RadloffL. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306
41.
RennerL. M.SlackK. S. (2006). Intimate partner violence and child maltreatment: Understanding intra- and intergenerational connections. Child Abuse & Neglect, 30(6), 599–617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2005.12.005
42.
ReynoldsC. R.RichmondB. O. (2000). Revised children’s manifest anxiety ScaleRCMAS manual. Western Psychological Services.
43.
RodriguezN.SteinbergA. M.PynoosR. S. (2001). PTSD Index for DSM-IV (revision 2). University of Los Angeles, Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences.
44.
RussottiJ.WarminghamJ. M.HandleyE. D.RogoschF. A.CicchettiD. (2021). Child maltreatment: An intergenerational cascades model of risk processes potentiating child psychopathology. Child Abuse & Neglect, 112, 104829. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104829
45.
SchofieldT. J.LeeR. D.MerrickM. T. (2013). Safe, stable, nurturing relationships as a moderator of intergenerational continuity of child maltreatment: A meta-analysis. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53(4), S32–S38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.05.004
46.
ScottK. M.McLaughlinK. A.SmithD. A. R.EllisP. M. (2012). Childhood maltreatment and DSM-IV adult mental disorders: Comparison of prospective and retrospective findings. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 200(6), 469–475. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.111.103267
47.
SierauS.WarminghamJ.WhiteL. O.KleinA. M.von KlitzingK. (2020). Childhood emotional and conduct problems in childhood and adolescence differentially associated with intergenerational maltreatment continuity and parental internalizing symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 48(1), 29–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-019-00575-w
48.
SlackK. S.BergerL. M. (2020). Who is and is not served by child protective services systems? Implications for a prevention infrastructure to reduce child maltreatment. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 692(1), 182–202. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716220980691
49.
SmithK. E.PollakS. D. (2020). Rethinking concepts and categories for understanding the neurodevelopmental effects of childhood adversity. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16(1), 67–93. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620920725
50.
St-LaurentD.Dubois-ComtoisK.MilotT.CantinottiM. (2019). Intergenerational continuity/discontinuity of child maltreatment among low-income mother–child dyads: The roles of childhood maltreatment characteristics, maternal psychological functioning, and family ecology. Development and Psychopathology, 31(1), 189–202. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457941800161X
51.
SuY.D’ArcyC.MengX. (2020). Intergenerational effect of maternal childhood maltreatment on next generation’s vulnerability to psychopathology: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 23(1), 152–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838020933870
WegmanH. L.StetlerC. (2009). A meta-analytic review of the effects of childhood abuse on medical outcomes in adulthood. Psychosomatic Medicine, 71(8), 805–812. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181bb2b46
54.
WidomC. S. (1989). Child abuse, neglect, and adult behavior: Research design and findings on criminality, violence, and child abuse. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 59(3), 355–367. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1989.tb01671.x
55.
WidomC. S. (1999). Posttraumatic stress disorder in abused and neglected children grown up. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156(8), 1223–1229. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.156.8.1223
56.
WidomC. S.CzajaS. J.DuMontK. A. (2015). Intergenerational transmission of child abuse and neglect: Real or detection bias?. Science, 347(6229), 1480–1485. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1259917
57.
WidomC. S.DuMontK.CzajaS. J. (2007). A prospective investigation of major depressive disorder and comorbidity in abused and neglected children grown up. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(1), 49–56. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.1.49
58.
WidomC. S.DuttonM. A.CzajaS. J.DuMontK. A. (2005). Development and validation of a new instrument to assess lifetime trauma and victimization history. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18(5), 519–531. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20060
59.
World Health Organization (1997). Composite international diagnostic interview. World Health Organization.
60.
YehudaR.LehrnerA. (2018). Intergenerational transmission of trauma effects: Putative role of epigenetic mechanisms. World Psychiatry, 17(3), 243–257. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20568
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
