Cognition,Emotion,and Neurobiological Development: Mediating the Relation Between Maltreatment and Aggression

Abstract

Child maltreatment has been consistently linked to aggression, yet there have been few attempts to conceptualize precisely how maltreatment influences the development of aggression. This review proposes that biases in cognitive, emotional, and neurobiological development mediate the relation between childhood maltreatment and the development of aggression. In addition, it is posited that physical abuse and neglect may have differential effects on development: Physical abuse may result in hypervigilance to threat and a hostile attributional bias, whereas neglect may result in difficulties with emotion regulation because of a lack of emotional interactions. These processes may be “hardwired” into neural networks via the overactivation of certain brain regions and dysfunctional cognitive processes. The theoretical and necessarily speculative nature of this article is intended to stimulate hypotheses for future research. Only when the adverse effects of maltreatment on brain and cognitive development are understood can scholars hope to develop more effective interventions to alter the developmental pathway to aggression.

Keywords

maltreatment aggression physical abuse neglect cognition emotion regulation

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Amaral, D.G. , Price, J.L. , Pitkänen, A. , & Carmichael, S.T. (1992). Anatomical organization of the primate amygdaloid complex. In J. P. Aggleton (Ed.), The amygdala: Neurobiological aspects of emotion, memory, and mental dysfunction (pp. 1-66). New York: Wiley-Liss .

Arnsten, A.F.T. , & Shansky, R.M. (2004). Adolescence: Vulnerable period for stress-induced prefrontal cortical function? Introduction to Part IV. In R . E. Dahl & L. P. Spear (Eds.), Adolescent brain development: Vulnerabilities and opportunities. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (Vol. 1021, pp. 143-147). New York: New York Academy of Sciences .

Bartzokis, G. , Beckson, M. , Neuechterlein, K.H. , Edwards, N. , & Mintz, J. (2001). Age-related changes in frontal and temporal lobe volumes in men: A magnetic resonance imaging study . Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 461-465 .

Bell, M.A. , & Wolfe, C.D. (2004). Emotion and cognition: An intricately bound developmental process . Child Development, 75, 366-370 .

Biederman, J. , Monuteaux, M.C. , Doyle, A.E. , Seidman, L.J. , Wilens, T.E. , Ferrero, F. , et al. (2004). Impact of executive function deficits and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on academic outcomes in children . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 757-766 .

Biondi, M. , & Picardi, A. (1999). Psychological stress and neuroendocrine function in humans: The last two decades of research . Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 68, 114-150 .

Black, J. , Jones, T.A. , Nelson, C.A. , & Greenough, W.T. (1998). Neuronal plasticity and the developing brain. In N. E. Alessi , J. T. Coyle , S. I. Harrison , & S. Eth (Eds.), Handbook of child and adolescent psychiatry (pp. 31-53). New York: John Wiley .

Bohnert, A.M. , Cmic, K.A. , & Lim, K.G. (2003). Emotional competencies and aggressive behavior in school-age children . Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology , 31, 79-91 .

Brocki, K.C. , & Bohlin, G. (2004). Executive functions in children aged 6 to 13: A dimensional and developmental study . Developmental Neuropsychology , 26, 571-593 .

10.

Bufkin, J.L. , & Luttrell, V.R. (2005). Neuroimaging studies of aggressive and violent behavior: Current findings and implications for criminology and criminal justice . Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 6, 176-191 .

11.

Byrnes, J.P. (2003). Cognitive development during adolescence. In G. R. Adams & M. D. Berzonsky (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of adolescence (pp. 227-246). Malden, MA: Blackwell .

12.

Caspi, A. , McClay, J. , Moffitt, T.E. , Mill, J. , Martin, J. , Craig, I.W. , et al. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children . Science, 297, 851-854 .

13.

Chang, L. , Schwartz, D. , Dodge, K.A. , & McBride-Chang, C. (2003). Harsh parenting in relation to child emotion regulation and aggression . Journal of Family Psychology, 17, 598-606 .

14.

Chugani, H.T. , Behan, M.E. , Muzik, O. , Juhasz, C. , Nagy, F. , & Chugani, D.C. (2001). Local brain functional activity following early deprivation: A study of post-institutionalized Romanian orphans . Neuroimage, 14, 1290-1301 .

15.

Cicchetti, D. , Rogosch, F.A. , Maughan, A. , Toth, S.L. , & Bruce, J. (2003). False belief understanding in maltreated children . Development and Psychopathology, 15, 1067-1097 .

16.

Cicchetti, D. , & Tucker, K. (1994). Development and self-regulatory structures of the mind . Development and Psychopathology, 6, 533-549 .

17.

Cohen, D. , & Strayer, J. (1996). Empathy in conduct-disordered and comparison youth . Developmental Psychology, 32, 988-998 .

18.

Cohen, J.A. , Mannarino, A.P. , & Knudsen, K. (2005). Treating sexually abused children: One year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial . Child Abuse & Neglect , 29, 135-145 .

19.

Crick, N.R. , & Dodge, K.A. (1996). Social information-processing mechanisms on reactive and proactive aggression . Child Development, 67, 993-1002 .

20.

Davidson, R.J. , Jackson, D.C. , & Kalin, N.H. (2000). Emotion, plasticity, context, and regulation: Perspectives from affective neuroscience . Psychological Bulletin, 126, 890-909 .

21.

Davidson, R.J. , Putnam, K.M. , & Larson, C.L. (2000). Dysfunctioning in the neural circuitry of emotion regulation: A possible prelude to violence . Science, 289 (5479), 591-594 .

22.

de Bellis, M.D. (2005). The psychobiology of neglect . Child Maltreatment, 10, 150-172 .

23.

de Castro, B.O. , Bosch, J.D. , Veerman, J.W. , & Koops, W. (2003). The effects of emotion regulation, attribution, and delay prompts on aggressive boys' social problem solving. Cognitive Therapy & Research, 27, 153-166 .

24.

de Castro, B.O. , Merk, W. , Koops, W. , Veerman, J.W. , & Bosch, J.D. (2005). Emotions in social information processing and their relations with reactive and proactive aggression in referred aggressive boys. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology , 34, 105-116 .

25.

de Castro, B.O. , Veerman, J.W. , Koops, W. , Bosch, J.D. , & Monshouwer, H.J. (2002). Hostile attribution of intent and aggressive behavior: A meta-analysis . Child Development , 73, 916-934 .

26.

Diamond, A. (2002). Normal development of prefrontal cortex from birth to young adulthood: Cognitive functions, anatomy, and biochemistry. In D . T. Stuss & R. T. Knight (Eds.), Principles of frontal lobe function (pp. 466-503). Oxford , UK: Oxford University Press .

27.

Dodge, K.A. (1993). Social-cognitive mechanisms in the development of conduct disorder and depression. Annual Review of Psychology , 44, 559-584 .

28.

Dodge, K.A. (2003). Do social information-processing patterns mediate aggressive behavior? In B. B. Lahey , T. E. Moffitt , & A. Caspi (Eds.), Causes of conduct disorder and juvenile delinquency (pp. 254-274). New York: Guilford .

29.

Dodge, K.A. , Bates, J.E. , & Pettit, G.S. (1990). Mechanisms in the cycle of violence . Science, 250, 1678-1683 .

30.

Dodge, K.A. , & Coie, J.D. (1987). Social-information processing factors in reactive and proactive aggression in children's peer groups . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1146-1158 .

31.

Dodge, K.A. , Crozier, J. , & Lansford, J.E. (2001). Social information processing mediators of the effect of early physical maltreatment on the development of aggressive behavior . Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Minneapolis, MN.

32.

Dodge, K.A. , & Frame, C.L. (1982). Social cognitive biases and deficits in aggressive boys . Child Development, 53, 620-635 .

33.

Dodge, K.A. , & Pettit, G.S. (2003). A biopsychosocial model of the development of chronic conduct problems in adolescence . Developmental Psychology , 39, 349-371 .

34.

Dodge, K.A. , Pettit, G.S. , Bates, J.E. , & Valente, E. (1995). Social information-processing patterns partially mediate the effect of early physical abuse on later conduct problems . Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 632-643 .

35.

Dodge, K.A. , Pettit, G.S. , McClaskey, C.L. , & Brown, M. (1986). Social competence in children (Monograph 51(2), Serial 213). Ann Arbor, MI: Society for Research in Child Development .

36.

Dodge, K.A. , Price, J.M. , Bachorowski, J. , & Newman, J.P. (1990). Hostile attributional biases in severely aggressive adolescents . Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 385-392 .

37.

Dodge, K.A. , & Schwartz, D. (1997). Social information processing mechanisms in aggressive behavior. In D. M. Stoff , J. Breiling , & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Handbook of antisocial behavior (pp. 171-180). New York: John Wiley .

38.

Eisenberg, N. (2000). Empathy and sympathy. In M. Lewis & Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 677-693). New York: Guilford .

39.

Eisenberg, N. , & Fabes, R.A. (1999). Emotion, emotion-related regulation, and quality of socioemotional functioning. In L. Balter (Ed.), Child psychology: A handbook of contemporary issues (pp. 318-335). Philadelphia: Psychology Press / Taylor & Francis .

40.

Eisenberg, N. , Fabes, R. , Murphy, B. , Smith, P. , O'Boyle, C. , & Suh, K. (1994). The relations of emotionality and regulation to dispositional and situational empathy-related responding . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 776-797 .

41.

Eisenberg, N. , Fabes, R.A. , Schaller, M. , Carlo, G. , & Miller, P.A. (1991). The relations of parental characteristics and practices to children's vicarious emotional responding . Child Development, 62, 1393-1408 .

42.

Erickson, M.F. , & Egeland, B. (2002). Child neglect. In J. E. B. Myers , L. Berliner , J. Briere , C. T. Hendrix , C. Jenny , & T. A. Reid (Eds.), The APSAC handbook on child maltreatment (2nd ed., pp. 3-20). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .

43.

Finkelhor, D. , Ormrod, R. , Turner, H. , & Hamby, S.L. (2005). The victimization of children and youth: A comprehensive, national survey . Child Maltreatment, 10, 5-25 .

44.

Fishbein, D. , Hyde, C. , Coe, B. , & Paschall, M.J. (2004). Neurocognitive and physiological prerequisites for prevention of adolescent drug abuse . Journal of Primary Prevention, 24, 471-495 .

45.

Flavell, J.H. , Miller, P.H. , & Miller, S.A. (2002). Cognitive development (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall .

46.

Garbarino, J. , Eckenrode, J. , & Powers, J.L. (1997). The maltreatment of youth. In J. Garbarino & J. Eckenrode (Eds.), Understanding abusive families: An ecological approach to theory and practice (pp. 145-165). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass .

47.

Gerra, G. , Zaimovic, A. , Avanzini, P. , Chittolini, B. , Giucastro, G. , Caccavari, R. , et al. (1997). Neurotransmitter-neuroendocrine responses to experimentally induced aggression in humans: Influence of personality variable . Psychiatry Research, 66, 33-43 .

48.

Giancola, P.R. (2000). Neuropsychological functioning and antisocial behavior: Implications for etiology and prevention. In D. H. Fishbein (Ed.), The science, treatment, and prevention of antisocial behaviors: Applications to the criminal justice system (pp. 1-16). Kingston, NJ : Civic Research Institute .

49.

Giancola, P.R. , Mezzich, A.C. , & Tarter, R.E. (1998). Executive cognitive functioning, temperament, and antisocial behavior in conduct-disordered adolescent females . Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 629-641 .

50.

Giedd, J.N. (2004). Structural magnetic resonance imaging of the adolescent brain. In R. E. Dahl & L. P. Spear (Eds.), Adolescent brain development: Vulnerabilities and opportunities. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (Vol. 1021, pp. 77-85). New York: New York Academy of Sciences .

51.

Giedd, J.N. , Blumenthal, J. , Jeffries, N.O. , Castellanos, F.X. , Liu, H. , Zijdenbos, A. , et al. (1999). Brain development during childhood and adolescence: A longitudinal MRI study . Nature Neuroscience , 2(10), 861-863 .

52.

Gilliom, M. , Shaw, D.S. , Beck, J.E. , Schonberg, M.A. , & Lukon, J.L. (2002). Anger regulation in disadvantaged preschool boys: Strategies, antecedents, and the development of self-control . Developmental Psychology, 38, 222-235 .

53.

Goldsmith, H.H. , & Davidson, R.J. (2004). Disambiguating the components of emotion regulation . Child Development, 75, 361-365 .

54.

Graham, S. , & Hudley, C. (1994). Attributions of aggressive and nonaggressive African American male early adolescents: A study of construct accessibility . Developmental Psychology, 30, 365-373 .

55.

Gunnar, M.R. , Tout, K., de Haan, M., Pierce, S., & Stansbury, K. (1997). Temperament, social competence, and adrenocortical activity in preschoolers. Developmental Psychobiology, 31, 65-85 .

56.

Gunnar, M.R. , & Vazquez, D.M. (2001). Low cortisol and a flattening of expected daytime rhythm: Potential indices of risk in human development . Development and Psychopathology, 13, 515-538 .

57.

Hart, J. , Gunnar, M. , & Cicchetti, D. (1996). Altered neuroendocrine activity in maltreated children related to symptoms of depression . Development and Psychopathology, 8, 201-214 .

58.

Hartman, C.R. , & Burgess, A.W. (1993). Information processing of trauma . Child Abuse & Neglect, 17, 47-58 .

59.

Heim, C. , Ehlert, U. , & Hellhammer, D. (2000). The potential role of hypocorticolism in the pathophysiology of stress-related bodily disorders . Psychoneuroendocrinology, 25, 1-35 .

60.

Hildyard, K.L. , & Wolfe, D.A. (2002). Child neglect: Developmental issues and outcomes . Child Abuse and Neglect, 26, 679-695 .

61.

Hoaken, P.N.S. , Shaughnessy, V.K. , & Pihl, R.O. (2003). Executive cognitive functioning and aggression: Is it an issue of impulsivity ? Aggressive Behavior, 29, 15-30 .

62.

Hoffman, M.L. (1984). Interaction of affect and cognition in empathy . In C. E. Izard , J. Kagan , & R. B. Zajonc (Eds.), Emotions, cognitions and behavior (pp. 103-131). New York: Cambridge University Press .

63.

Ishikawa, S.S. , & Raine, A. (2003). Prefrontal deficits and antisocial behavior: A causal model. In B. B. Lahey , T. E. Moffitt , & A. Caspi (Eds.), Causes of conduct disorder and juvenile delinquency (pp. 254-274). New York: Guilford .

64.

Jacobson, L. , & Sapolsky, R. (1991). The role of the hippocampus in feedback regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis . Endocrine Reviews, 12, 118-134 .

65.

Kanemura, H. , Aihara, M. , Aoki, S. , Araki, T. , & Nakazawa, S. (2003). Development of the prefrontal lobe in infants and children: A three-dimensional magnetic resonance volumetric study . Brain and Development, 25(3), 195-199 .

66.

Kaufer, D.I. , & Lewis, D.A. (1999). Frontal lobe anatomy and cortical connectivity . In B. L. Miller & J. L. Cummings (Eds.), The human frontal lobes (pp. 27-44). New York: Guilford .

67.

Kitchener, K.S. , King, P.M. , Wood, P.K. , & Davidson, M.L. (1989). Sequentiality and consistency in the development of reflective judgment: A six-year longitudinal study . Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 10, 73-95 .

68.

Knutson, J.F. , DeGarmo, D. , Koeppl, G. , & Reid, J.B. (2005). Care neglect, supervisory neglect, and harsh parenting in the development of children's aggression: A replication and extension . Child Maltreatment, 10, 92-107 .

69.

Kostovic, I. , Skavic, J. , & Strinovic, D. (1988). Acetylcholinesterase in the human frontal associative cortex during the period of cognitive development: Early laminar shifts and late innervation of pyramidal neurons . Neuroscience Letters , 90, 107-112 .

70.

Liddle, P.F. , Kiehl, K.A. , & Smith, A.M. (2001). An event-related fMRI study of response inhibition . Human Brain Mapping, 12, 100-109 .

71.

Lovallo, W.R. , & Thomas, T.L. (2000). Stress hormones in psychophysiological research: Emotional, behavioral, and cognitive implications. In J. T. Cacioppo , L. G. Tassinary , & G. G. Berntson (Eds.), Handbook of psychophysiology (2nd ed., pp. 342-367). New York: Cambridge University Press .

72.

Lubit, R. , Rovine, D. , DeFrancisci, L. , & Eth, S. (2003). Impact of trauma on children . Journal of Psychiatric Practice, 9, 128-138 .

73.

Manly, J.T. , Kim, J.E. , Rogosch, F.A. , & Cicchetti, D. (2001). Dimensions of child maltreatment and children's adjustment: Contributions of developmental timing and subtype . Development & Psychopathology, 13, 759-782 .

74.

Matson, D.E. , & Fisher, M. (1991). A comparison of internalizers, externalizers, and normals using the WISC-R and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test . Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 9, 140-151 .

75.

McBurnett, K. , Lahey, B.B. , Rathouz, P.J. , & Loeber, R. (2000). Low salivary cortisol and persistent aggression in boys referred for disruptive behavior . Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 38-43 .

76.

McCart, M.R. , Priester, P.E. , Davies, W.H. , & Azen, R. (2006). Differential effectiveness of behavioral parent-training and cognitive-behavioral therapy for antisocial youth: A meta-analysis . Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 527-543 .

77.

Milich, R. , & Dodge, K.A. (1984). Social information processing patterns in child psychiatric populations . Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology , 12, 471-490 .

78.

Moffitt, T.E. (2005). The new look of behavioral genetics in developmental psychopathology: Gene-environment interplay in antisocial behaviors . Psychological Bulletin, 131, 533-554 .

79.

Moffitt, T.E. , & Henry, B. (1989). Neuropsychological assessment of executive functions in self-reported delinquents . Development and Psychopathology , 1, 105-118 .

80.

Moshman, D. (1998). Cognitive development beyond childhood. In W. Damon , D. Kuhn , & R. S. Siegler (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 2. Cognition, language, and perception (pp. 947-978). New York: John Wiley .

81.

Mungas, D. (1988). Psychometric correlates of episodic violent behavior: A multidimensional neuropsychological approach . British Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 180-187 .

82.

National Clearinghouse on Family Violence. ( 2005). Emotional abuse. Ottawa, Ontario: Health Canada .

83.

National Institutes of Health. (2006). National Institutes of Health state-of-the-science conference statement: Preventing violence and related health-risking, social behaviors in adolescents, October 13-15, 2004 . Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 457-470 .

84.

Nelson, C.A. , & Carver, L.J. (1998). The effects of stress and trauma on brain and memory: A view from developmental cognitive neuroscience . Development and Psychopathology, 10, 793-809 .

85.

Nigg, J.T. , Quamma, J.P. , Greenberg, M.T. , & Kusche, C.A. (1999). A two-year longitudinal study of neuropsychological and cognitive performance in relation to behavioral problems and competencies in elementary children . Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology , 27, 51-63 .

86.

Paus, T. (2005). Mapping brain development and aggression. In R. E. Tremblay , W. W. Hartup , & J. Archer (Eds.), Developmental origins of aggression (pp. 242-260). New York: Guilford .

87.

Pears, K. , & Fisher, P.A. (2005). Developmental, cognitive, and neuropsychological functioning in preschool-aged foster children: Associations with prior maltreatment and placement history. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 26, 112-122 .

88.

Perry, B.D. (2001). The neurodevelopmental impact of violence in childhood . In D. Schetky & E. P. Benedek (Eds.), Textbook of child and adolescent forensic psychiatry (pp. 221-238). Washington, DC : American Psychiatric Press .

89.

Phelps, E.A. (2006). Emotion and cognition: Insights from studies of the human amygdala. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 27-53 .

90.

Pihl, R.O. , & Benkelfat, C. (2005). Neuromodulators in the development and expression of inhibition and aggression. In R. E. Tremblay , W. W. Hartup , & J. Archer (Eds.), Developmental origins of aggression (pp. 261-280). New York: Guilford .

91.

Pollak, S.D. , Cicchetti, D. , Hornung, K. , & Reed, A. (2000). Recognizing emotion in faces: Developmental effects of child abuse and neglect . Developmental Psychology, 36, 679-688 .

92.

Repetti, R.L. , Taylor, S.E. , & Seeman, T.E. (2002). Risky families: Family social environments and the mental and physical health of offspring . Psychological Bulletin, 128, 330-366 .

93.

Rieder, C. , & Cicchetti, D. (1989). Organizational perspective on cognitive control functioning and cognitive-affective balance in maltreated children . Developmental Psychology, 25, 382-393 .

94.

Roberts, W. , & Strayer, J. (1996). Empathy, emotional expressive-ness and prosocial behavior . Child Development, 67, 449-470 .

95.

Rosenblum, G.D. , & Lewis, M. (2003). Emotional development in adolescence. In G. R. Adams & M. D. Berzonsky (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of adolescence (pp. 269-289). Malden, MA: Blackwell .

96.

Rosso, I.M. , Young, A.D. , Femia, L.A. , & Yurgelun-Todd, D.A. (2004). Cognitive and emotional components of frontal lobe functioning in childhood and adolescence. In R. E. Dahl & L. P. Spear (Eds.), Adolescent brain development: Vulnerabilities and opportunities. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (Vol. 1021, pp. 355-362). New York: New York Academy of Sciences .

97.

Sapolsky, R.M. (1992). Stress, the aging brain, and the mechanisms of neuron death. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press .

98.

Sapolsky, R.M. (1996). Why stress is bad for your brain . Science, 273, 749-750 .

99.

Sapolsky, R.M. (2000). The possibility of neurotoxicity in the hippocampus in major depression: A primer on neuron death. Biological Psychiatry, 48, 755-765 .

100.

Scerbo, A.S. , & Kolko, D.J. (1994). Salivary testosterone and cortisol in disruptive children: Relationship to aggressive, hyperactive and internalizing behaviors . Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 1174-1184 .

101.

Schommer, M. , Calvert, C. , Garigleietti, G. , & Bajaj, A. (1997). The development of epistemological beliefs among secondary students: A longitudinal study . Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 37-40 .

102.

Schore, A.N. (1996). The experience-dependent maturation of a regulatory systems in the orbital prefrontal cortex and the origin of developmental psychopathology . Development and Psychopathology, 8, 59-87 .

103.

Schulz, K.P. , Halperin, J.M. , Newcorn, J.H. , Sharma, V. , & Gabriel, S. (1997). Plasma cortisol and aggression in boys with ADHD . Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 605-609 .

104.

Schumacher, J.A. , Slep, A.M.S. , & Heyman, R.E. (2001). Risk factors for child neglect . Aggression & Violent Behavior: Special Risk Factors for Family Violence , 6, 231-254 .

105.

Schwartz, D. , Dodge, K.A. , Coie, J.D. , Hubbard, J.A. , Cillessen, A.H. , Lemerise, E.A. , et al. (1998). Social-cognitive and behavioral correlates of aggression and victimization in boys' playgroups . Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26, 431-440 .

106.

Séguin, J.R. , Areseneault, L. , Boulerice, B. , Harden, P.W. , & Tremblay, R.E. (2002). Response perseveration in adolescent boys with stable and unstable histories of physical aggression: The role of underlying processes . Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 43, 481-494 .

107.

Séguin, J.R. , Boulerice, B. , Harden, P.W. , Tremblay, R.E. , & Pihl, R.O. (1999). Executive functions and physical aggression after controlling for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, general memory, and IQ . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 1197-1208 .

108.

Séguin, J.R. , Nagin, D. , Assaad, J. , & Tremblay, R.E. (2004). Cognitive-neuropsychological function in chronic physical aggression and hyperactivity . Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 603-616 .

109.

Séguin, J.R. , & Zelazo, P.D. (2005). Executive function in early physical aggression . In R. E. Tremblay , W. W. Hartup , & J. Archer (Eds.), Developmental origins of aggression (pp. 307-329). New York: Guilford .

110.

Seifert, K. (2003). Childhood trauma: Its relationship to behavioral and psychiatric disorders . Forensic Examiner, 12, 27-33 .

111.

Shields, A. , & Cicchetti, D. (1998). Reactive aggression among maltreated children: The contributions of attention and emotion dysregulation . Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 381-395 .

112.

Shields, A. , & Cicchetti, D. (2001). Parental maltreatment and emotion dysregulation as risk factors for bullying and victimization in middle childhood . Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 349-363 .

113.

Siegel, D.J. (1999). The developing mind: Toward a neurobiology of interpersonal experience. New York: Guilford .

114.

Slaby, R.G. , & Guerra, N.G. (1988). Cognitive mediators of aggression in adolescent offenders: 1. Assessment . Developmental Psychology, 24, 580-588 .

115.

Sowell, E.R. , Thompson, P.M. , Holmes, C.J. , Batth, R. , Jernigan, T.L. , & Toga, A.W. (1999). Localizing age-related changes in brain structure between childhood and adolescence using statistical parametric mapping . NeuroImage, 9, 587-597 .

116.

Spear, L.P. (2000). The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations . Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 24, 417-463 .

117.

Stoff, D.M. , Pasatiempo, A.P. , Yeung, J. , Cooper, T.B. , Bridger, W.H. , & Rabinovich, H. (1992). Neuroendocrine responses to challenge with dl-fenfluramine and aggression in disruptive behavior disorders of children and adolescents . Psychiatry Research, 43, 263-276 .

118.

Stouthamer-Loeber, M. , Loeber, R. , Homish, D.L. , & Wei, E. (2001). Maltreatment of boys and the development of disruptive and delinquent behavior . Development and Psychopathology, 13, 941-955 .

119.

Strathearn, L. , Gray, P.H. , O'Callaghan, F. , & Wood, D.O. (2001). Childhood neglect and cognitive development in extremely low birth weight infants: A prospective study . Pediatrics, 108, 142-151 .

120.

Stuss, D.T. , Levine, B. , Alexander, M.P. , Hong, J. , Palumbo, C. , Hamer, L. , et al. (2000). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in patients with focal frontal and posterior brain damage: Effects of lesion location and test structure on separable cognitive processes . Neuropsychologia, 38, 388-402 .

121.

Susman, E.J. , Dorn, L.D. , Inoff-Germain, G. , Nottelmann, E.D. , & Chrousos, G. (1997). Cortisol reactivity, distress behavior, and behavioral and psychological problems in young adolescents: A longitudinal perspective . Journal of Research on Adolescence, 7, 81-105 .

122.

Teicher, M.H. , Dumont, N. , Ito, Y. , Vaituzis, A.C. , Giedd, J. , & Anderson, S. (2004). Childhood neglect is associated with reduced corpus callosum area. Biological Psychiatry, 56, 80-85 .

123.

Toupin, J. , Déry, M. , Pauzé, R. , Mercier, H. , & Fortin, L. (2000). Cognitive and familial contributions to conduct disorder in children . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 41, 333-344 .

124.

Tuma, F. , Loeber, R. , & Lochman, J.E. (2006). Introduction to the special section on the National Institute of Health state of the science report on violence prevention . Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 451-456 .

125.

Turgeon, M. , & Nolin, P. (2004). Relationship between neglect and children's memory and verbal learning capacities/Relation entre la négligence et la capacité de mémorisation et d'apprentissage verbal chez les enfants. Revue Quebecoise de Psychologie, 25, 151-165 .

126.

Turner, H.A. , Finkelhor, D. , & Ormrod, R.K. (2006). The effect of lifetime victimization on the mental health of children and adolescents . Social Science & Medicine , 62(1), 13-27 .

127.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration on Children, Youth and Families. (2004). Child maltreatment. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office .

128.

Van Goozen, S.H.M. (2005). Hormones and the developmental origins of aggression . In R. E. Tremblay , W. W. Hartup , & J. Archer (Eds.), Developmental origins of aggression (pp. 281-306). New York: Guilford .

129.

Van Voorhees, E. , & Scarpa, A. (2004). The effects of child maltreatment on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis . Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 5, 333-352 .

130.

Villemarette-Pittman, N.R. , Stanford, M.S. , & Greve, K.W. (2003). Language and executive function in self-reported impulsive aggression . Personality & Individual Differences , 34, 1533-1544 .

131.

Waldman, I.D. (1996). Aggressive boys' hostile perceptual and response biases: The role of attention and impulsivity . Child Development , 67, 1015-1033 .

132.

Weiss, B. , Dodge, K.A. , Bates, J.E. , & Pettit, G.S. (1992). Some consequences of early harsh discipline: Child aggression and a maladaptive social information processing style . Child Development, 63, 1321-1335 .

133.

Weisz, J.R. , & Hawley, K.M. (2002). Developmental factors in the treatment on adolescents . Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 70, 21-43 .

134.

Widom, C.S. (1989). Does violence beget violence? A critical examination of the literature . Psychological Bulletin, 106, 3-28 .

135.

Widom, C.S. (1998). Childhood victimization: Early adversity and subsequent psychopathology. In B. P. Dohrenwend (Ed.), Adversity, stress, and psychopathology (pp. 81-95). New York: Oxford University Press .

136.

Wolkowitz, O.M. , Reus, V.I. , Weingartner, H. , Thompson, K. , Breier, A. , Doran, A. , et al. (1990). Cognitive effects of corticosteroids . American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 1297-1303 .

137.

Zelazo, P.D. , Qu, L. , & Müller, U. (2005). Hot and cool aspects of executive function: Relations in early development. In W. Schneider , R. Schumann-Hengsteler , & B. Sodian (Eds.), Young children's cognitive development: Interrelationships among executive functioning, working memory, verbal ability, and theory of mind (pp. 71-93). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum .

138.

Zubenko, W.N. (2002). Developmental issues in stress and crisis. In W. N. Zubenko & J. A. Capozzoli (Eds.), Children and disasters: A practical guide to healing and recovery (pp. 85-100). New York: Oxford University Press .