Maltreated children are at increased risk for behavior problems. This study examines a model in which shame mediates the potential relation between maltreatment and anger, and anger mediates the potential relation between shame and behavior problems. Participants were 177 children (ages 3 to 7 years) and their mothers, 90 of whom had histories of perpetrating neglect and/or physical abuse. Physical abuse, but not neglect, was related to increased shame during an evaluative task; shame was related to increased anger; and anger to teacher ratings of total behavior problems and externalizing problems. Age moderated the relation between physical abuse and adjustment, as abuse was related to more total problems only among the younger children. Anger was a significant mediator of shame and both behavior problems and externalizing problems. Shame, anger, age, and type of maltreatment appear to be important factors in explaining variance in behavioral adjustment following a history of maltreatment.
Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the Teacher's Report Form and 1991 profile. Burlington: University of Vermont Department of Psychiatry.
2.
Alessandri, S. M., & Lewis, M. (1993). Parental evaluation and its relation to shame and pride in young children. Sex Roles, 29, 335-343.
3.
Alessandri, S. M., & Lewis, M. (1996). Differences in pride and shame in maltreated and nonmaltreated preschoolers. Child Development, 67, 1857-1869.
4.
Andrews, B. (1995). Bodily shame as a mediator between abusive experiences and depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 277-285.
5.
Andrews, B., Brewin, C. R., Rose, S., & Kirk, M. (2000). Predicting PTSD symptoms in victims of violent crime: The role of shame, anger, and childhood abuse. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 69-73.
6.
Barrett, K. C., & Campos, J. J. (1987). Perspectives on emotional development. II. A functionalist approach to emotions. In J. D. Osofsky (Ed.), Handbook of infant development(2nd ed., pp. 555-578). New York: Wiley.
7.
Barrett, K. C., Zahn-Waxler, C., & Cole, P. M. (1993). Avoiders vs. amenders: Implications for the investigation of guilt and shame during toddlerhood?Cognition and Emotion, 7, 481-505.
8.
Belsky, J., & Domitrovich, C. (1997). Temperament and parenting antecedents of individual difference in three-year-old boys' pride and shame reactions. Child Development, 68, 456-466.
9.
Bousha, D., & Twentyman, C. (1984). Mother-child interactional style in abuse, neglect, and control groups: Naturalistic observations in the home. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93, 106-114.
10.
Bryceland, C., & Strayer, J. (1999). Shame and guilt: A functionalist reconceptualization applied to adaptive-maladaptive continua. Poster presented at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Albuquerque, New Mexico.
11.
Burhans, K. K., & Dweck, C. S. (1995). Helplessness in early childhood: The role of contingent worth. Child Development, 66, 1719-1738.
12.
Cicchetti, D., & Manly, J. T. (2001). Editorial: Operationalizing child maltreatment: Developmental processes and outcomes. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 755-757.
13.
Covert, M. V. (2004). Moderators of the effects of experimentally induced shame on indirect aggression (Doctoral dissertation, George Mason University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 65, 1062-1062.
14.
Crittenden, P. M., Claussen, A. H.,& Sugarman, D. B. (1994). Physical and psychological maltreatment in middle childhood and adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 145-164.
15.
Crockenberg, S., & Lourie, A. (1996). Parents' conflict strategies with children and children's conflict strategies with peers. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 42, 495-518.
16.
Culp, R. E., Howell, C. S., Culp, A. M., & Blankemeyer, M. (2001). Maltreated children's emotional and behavioral problems: Do teachers and parents see the same things?Journal of Child and Family Studies, 10, 39-50.
17.
Darwin, C. (1965). The expression of emotion in animals and man. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1872)
18.
Deblinger, E., & Runyon, M. K. (2005). Understanding and treating feelings of shame in children who have experienced maltreatment. Child Maltreatment, 10(4), 364-376.
19.
Dutton, D. G., van Ginkel, C., & Starzomski, A. (1995). The role of shame and guilt in the intergenerational transmission of abusiveness. Violence and Victims, 10, 121-131.
20.
Dweck, C. S., Chiu, C., & Hong, Y. (1995). Implicit theories and their role in judgments and reactions: A world from two perspectives. Psychological Inquiry, 6, 267-285.
21.
Egeland, B., Sroufe, L., & Erickson, M. (1983). The developmental consequences of different patterns of maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 7, 459-469.
22.
Elliott, D. M., Briere, J., McNeil, D., Cox, J., & Bauman, D. (1995). Multivariate impacts of sexual molestation, physical abuse and neglect in a forensic sample. Paper presented at the Fourth International Family Violence Research Conference, Durham, New Hampshire.
23.
English, D. J. (1999). Evaluation and risk assessment of child neglect in public child protection services. In H. Dubowitz (Ed.), Neglected children: Research, practice, and policy(pp. 191-210). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
24.
Epkins, C. C. (1993). A preliminary comparison of teacher ratings and child self-report of depression, anxiety, and aggression in inpatient and elementary school samples. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 21, 649-661.
25.
Fantuzzo, J. W., Weiss, A. D., Atkins, M., Meyers, R., & Noone, M. (1998). A contextually relevant assessment of the impact of child maltreatment on the social competencies of low-income urban children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 1201-1208.
26.
Feiring, C., & Taska, L. S. (2005). The persistence of shame following sexual abuse: A longitudinal look at risk and recovery. Child Maltreatment, 10(4), 337-349.
27.
Feiring, C., Taska, L., & Lewis, M. (1998). The role of shame and attribution style in children's and adolescents' adaptation to sexual abuse. Child Maltreatment, 3, 129-142.
28.
Feiring, C., Taska, L., & Lewis, M. (1999). Age and gender differences in children's and adolescents' adaptation to sexual abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 23, 115-128.
29.
Feiring, C., Taska, L., & Lewis, M. (2002). Adjustment following sexual abuse discovery: The role of shame and attributional style. Developmental Psychology, 38, 79-92.
30.
Ferguson, T. J., & Eyre, H. L. (2000). Engendering gender differences in shame and guilt: Stereotypes, socialization, and situational pressures. In A. H. Fischer (Ed.), Gender and emotion: Social psychological perspectives(pp. 254-276). New York: Cambridge University Press.
31.
Ferguson, T. J., Eyre, H. L.,& Ashbaker, M. (2000). Unwanted identities: A key variable in shame-anger links and gender differences in shame. Sex Roles, 42, 133-157.
32.
Ferguson, T. J., Stegge, H., Eyre, H. L., Vollmer, R., & Ashbaker, M. (2000). Context effects and the (mal)adaptive nature of guilt and shame in children. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 126, 319-345.
33.
Finzi, R., Ram, A., Shnit, D., Har-Even, D., Tyano, S.,& Weizman, A. (2001). Depressive symptoms and suicidality in physically abused children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 71, 98-107.
34.
Frias-Armenta, M., & McCloskey, L. A. (1998). Determinants of harsh parenting in Mexico. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26, 129-139.
35.
Goodman, L. A. (1960). On the exact variance of products. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 55, 708-713.
36.
Gracia, E. (1995). Visible but unreported: A case for the “not serious enough” cases of child maltreatment. Child Abuse& Neglect, 19, 1083-1093.
37.
Gross, J. J.,& Levenson, R. W. (1993). Emotional suppression: Physiology, self-report, and expressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 970-986.
38.
Gross, J. J., & Levenson, R. W. (1997). Hiding feelings: The acute effects of inhibiting negative and positive emotion. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 95-103.
39.
Harper, F.W.K., & Arias, I. (2004). The role of shame in predicting adult anger and depressive symptoms among victims of child psychological maltreatment. Journal of Family Violence, 19, 367-375.
40.
Hoffman-Plotkin, D., & Twentyman, C. T. (1984). A multimodal assessment of behavioral and cognitive deficits in abused and neglected preschoolers. Child Development, 55, 794-802.
41.
Hoglund, C. L.,& Nicholas, K. B. (1995). Shame, guilt, and anger in college students exposed to abusive family environments. Journal of Family Violence, 10, 141-157.
42.
Izard, C. E. (1995). The maximally discriminative facial movement coding system. Unpublished manuscript, University of Delaware, Newark.
43.
Johnson, R. M., Kotch, J. B., Catellier, D. J., Winsor, J. R., Dufort, V., Hunter, W., et al. (2002). Adverse behavioral and emotional outcomes from child abuse and witnessed violence. Child Maltreatment, 7, 179-186.
44.
Kaufman, J. (1991). Depressive disorders in maltreated children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 257-265.
45.
Keiley, M. K., Howe, T. R., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (2001). The timing of child physical maltreatment: A crossdomain growth analysis of impact on adolescent externalizing and internalizing problems. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 891-912.
46.
Kelley, S. A., Brownell, C. A., & Campbell, S. B. (2000). Mastery motivation and self-evaluative affect in toddlers: Longitudinal relations with maternal behavior. Child Development, 71, 1061-1071.
47.
Keltner, D., Moffitt, T. E., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1995). Facial expressions of emotion and psychopathology in adolescent boys. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 644-652.
48.
Kenny, D. A., Kashy, D. A., & Bolger, N. (1998). Data analysis in social psychology. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology(pp. 233-265). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
49.
Kinard, E. (1994). Methodological issues and practical problems in conducting research on maltreated children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 18, 645-656.
50.
Kinard, E. M. (2004). Methodological issues in assessing the effects of maltreatment characteristics on behavioral adjustment in maltreated children. Journal of Family Violence, 19, 303-318.
51.
Knutson, J. F. (1995). Psychological characteristics of maltreated children: Putative risk factors and consequences. Annual Review of Psychology, 46, 401-431.
52.
Knutson, J. F., DeGarmo, D. S.,& Reid, J. B. (2004). Social disadvantage and neglectful parenting as precursors to the development of antisocial and aggressive child behavior: Testing a theoretical model. Aggressive Behavior, 30, 187-205.
53.
Kolko, D. J. (1996). Child physical abuse. In J. Briere, L. Berliner, J. A. Bulkley, C. Jenny, & T. Reid (Eds.), The APSAC handbook on child maltreatment(pp. 21-50). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
54.
Kurtz, P. D., Gaudin, J. M., Howing, P. T., & Wodarski, J. S. (1993). The consequences of physical abuse and neglect on the school age child: Mediating factors. Children and Youth Services Review, 15, 85-104.
55.
Lewis, H. B. (1971). Shame and guilt in neurosis. New York: International Universities Press.
56.
Lewis, H. B. (1987). The role of shame in depression over the life span. In H. B. Lewis (Ed.), The role of shame in symptom formation (pp. 29-50). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
57.
Lewis, M. (1992). Shame: The exposed self. NewYork: The Free Press.
58.
Lewis, M. (1993). The development of anger and rage. In R. A. Glick & S. P. Roofe (Eds.), Rage power and aggression: The role of affect in motivation, development, and adaptation(pp. 148-168). New Haven: Yale University Press.
59.
Lewis, M. (1995). Self-conscious emotions. American Scientist, 83, 68-78.
60.
Lewis, M. (2000). Self-conscious emotions: Embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt. In M. Lewis & J. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions(2nd ed., pp. 623-636). New York: Guilford.
61.
Lewis, M., Alessandri, S. M., & Sullivan, M. W. (1992). Differences in pride and shame as a function of children's gender and task difficulty. Child Development, 63, 630-638.
62.
Lewis, M., & Sullivan, M. W. (2005). The development of self-conscious emotions. In A. Elliot& C. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation(pp. 185-201). New York: Guilford.
63.
Lewis, M., Sullivan, M. W., Ramsay, D., & Alessandri, S. M. (1992). Individual differences in anger and sad expressions during extinction: Antecedents and consequences. Infant Behavior and Development, 15, 443-452.
64.
Lewis, M., Sullivan, M. W., Stanger, C., & Weiss, M. (1989). Selfdevelopment and self-conscious emotions. Child Development, 25, 439-443.
65.
Loader, P. (1998). Such a shame—a consideration of shame and shaming mechanisms in families. Child Abuse Review, 7, 44-57.
66.
Lynch, M., & Cicchetti, D. (1998). An ecological-transactional analysis of children and contexts: The longitudinal interplay among child maltreatment, community violence, and children's symptomatology. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 235-257.
67.
Manly, J. T., Kim, J. E., Rogosch, F. A., & Cicchetti, D. (2001). Dimensions of child maltreatment and children's adjustment: Contributions of developmental timing and subtype. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 759-782.
68.
Mendes, W. B., Reis, H. T., Seery, M. D., & Blascovich, J. (2003). Cardiovascular correlates of emotional expression and suppression: Do content and gender context matter?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 771-792.
69.
Miller, S. (1985). The shame experience. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
70.
Mills, R.S.L. (2003). Possible antecedents and developmental implications of shame in young girls. Infant and Child Development, 12, 329-349.
71.
Morrison, A. P. (1989). Shame: The underside of narcissism. Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press.
72.
Namka, L. (1995). Shame busting: Incorporating group social skills training, shame release and play therapy with a child who was sexually abused. International Journal of Play Therapy, 4, 81-98.
73.
National Research Council. (1993). Understanding child abuse and neglect. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
74.
Pennebaker, J. W. (1993). Social mechanisms of constraint. In D. M. Wegner& J. W. Pennebaker (Eds.), Handbook of mental control (pp. 200-219). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
75.
Retzinger, S. R. (1987). Resentment of laughter: Video studies of the shame-rage spiral. In H. B. Lewis (Ed.), The role of shame in symptom formation(pp. 151-181). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
76.
Richards, J. M., & Gross, J. J. (1999). Composure at any cost? The cognitive consequences of emotion suppression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 1033-1044.
77.
Scheff, T. J. (1987). The shame-rage spiral: A case study of an interminable quarrel. In H. B. Lewis (Ed.), The role of shame in symptom formation(pp. 109-149). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
78.
Shields, A., Ryan, R. M., & Cicchetti, D. (2001). Narrative representations of caregivers and emotion dysregulation as predictors of maltreated children's rejection by peers. Developmental Psychology, 37, 321-337.
79.
Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7, 422-445.
80.
Stipek, D., Recchia, S., & McClintic, S. (1992). Self-evaluation in young children. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 57, Serial No. 226.
81.
Strassberg, Z., Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G., & Bates, J. E. (1994). Spanking in the home and children's subsequent aggression behavior toward kindergarten peers. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 445-461.
82.
Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Finkelhor, D., Moore, D. W., & Runyan, D. (1998). Identification of child maltreatment with the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scales: Development and psychometric data for a national sample of American parents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 22, 249-270.
83.
Strayer, J., & Roberts, W. (2004). Empathy and observed anger and aggression in five-year-olds. Social Development, 13, 1-13.
84.
Stuewig, J., & McCloskey, L. A. (2005). The relation of child maltreatment to shame and guilt among adolescents: Psychological routes to depression and delinquency. Child Maltreatment, 10 (4), 324-336.
85.
Sullivan, M. W., & Lewis, M. (2001). Children's self-evaluative emotions as a function of social class. Paper presented at the symposium, “Self-evaluative emotions: Developmental and social processes,” at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Minneapolis, Minnesota.
86.
Sullivan, M. W., Lewis, M., & Bennett, D. (1999). Emotions of maltreated children in response to success and failure. Presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Albuquerque, New Mexico.
87.
Tangney, J. P. (1991). Moral affect: The good, the bad, and the ugly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 598-607.
88.
Tangney, J. P., & Dearing, R. L. (2002). Shame and guilt. New York: Guilford.
89.
Tangney, J. P., Wagner, P. E., Burggraf, S. A., Gramzow, R., Jr., & Fletcher, C. (1991, June). Children's shame-proneness, but not guiltproneness, is related to emotional and behavioral maladjustment. Poster presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Society, Washington, DC.
90.
Tangney, J. P., Wagner, P., Fletcher, C., & Gramzow, R. (1992). Shamed into anger? The relation of shame and guilt to anger and self-reported aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 669-675.
91.
Tangney, J. P., Wagner, P., & Gramzow, R. (1992). Proneness to shame, proneness to guilt, and psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 469-478.
92.
Tangney, J. P., Wagner, P. E., Hill-Barlow, D., Marschall, D. E., & Gramzow, R. (1996). The relation of shame and guilt to constructive versus destructive responses to anger across the lifespan. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 797-809.
93.
Toth, S. L., Cicchetti, D., Macfie, J., & Emde, R. N. (1997). Representations of self and other in the narratives of neglected, physically abused, and sexually abused preschoolers. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 781-796.
94.
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Administration on Children, Youth, & Families. (2004). Child maltreatment 2002. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
95.
Verhulst, F. C., Koot, H. M., & Van der Ende, J. (1994). Differential predictive value of parents' and teachers' ratings of behavioral/ emotional problems of children aged 4-12. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30, 123-136.
96.
Watt, N. F. (1976). Two-factor index of social position: Amherst modification. Unpublished manuscript, University of Massachusetts at Amherst.
