Controversies have centered on the prevalence of dissociative symptoms and disorders in children and adolescents, recommended treatment approaches, and the potential effects of suggestive interpersonal influences. Convergence among diverse practitioners describing dissociative children and adolescents with similar symptoms and maltreatment histories supports the occurrence of these symptom patterns. Although prevalence information has not been well studied, dissociative symptoms may be found in children from a variety of settings across a continuum of severity. There is not yet agreement on exact treatment protocols, but successful treatment outcomes have been reported. A challenge for future research is to develop assessment protocols that are derived from multiple sources of data, and to incorporate the latest developmental research findings into theory development that addresses psychobiological, family, and cultural factors. The study of dissociation in children and adolescents has the potential to clarify some puzzling child and adolescent presentations and to identify a process by which some children respond and adapt to traumatic environments.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Achenback, T. M.
, & Edelbrock, C. (1983). Manual for the child behavior checklist and revised child behavior profile. Burlington: University of Vermont.
2.
Acocella, J.
(1998, April 6). The politics of hysteria. New Yorker, 64-80.
3.
Akhtar, S.
, & Brenner, I. (1979). Differential diagnosis of fugue-like states. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 40, 381-385.
4.
Albini, T. K.
, & Pease, T. E. (1989). Normal and pathological dissociations of early childhood. Dissociation, 2(3), 144-149.
5.
Allers, C. T.
, White, J. F., & Mullis, F. (1997). The treatment of dissociation in an HIV-infected sexually abused adolescent male. Psychotherapy, 34(2), 201-206.
6.
Altman, H.
, Collins, M., & Mundy, P. (1997). Subclinical hallucinations and delusions in nonpsychotic adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 413-420.
7.
American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
(1998). Practice parameters for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37(10), 4s-26s.
8.
American Psychiatric Association
. (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
9.
Armstrong, J.
, Putnam, F. W., Carlson, E., Libero, D. Z., & Smith, S. (1997). Development and validation of a measure of adolescent dissociation: The Adolescent Dissociative Experience Scale. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 185, 491-497.
10.
Atlas, J. A.
, Weissman, K., & Liebowitz, S. (1997). Adolescent inpatients' history of abuse and dissociative identity disorder. Psychological Reports, 80, 1086.
11.
Barach, P. M.
(1991). Multiple personality as an attachment disorder. Dissociation, 4, 117-123.
12.
Barach, P. M.
, & Comstock, C. M. (1996). Psychodynamic psychotherapy of dissociative identity disorder. In L. Michelson & W. J. Ray (Eds.), Handbook of dissociation: Theoretical, empirical, and clinical perspectives (pp. 413-429). New York: Plenum.
13.
Barber, T. X.
(1997). A new hypnosis paradigm. Psychological Hypnosis, 6(3), 8-11.
14.
Benjamin, L. R.
, & Benjamin, R. (1993). Interventions with children in dissociative families: A family treatment model. Dissociation, 7, 47-53.
15.
Benjamin, L. R.
, Benjamin, R., & Rind, B. (1996). Dissociative mother's subjective experience of parenting. Child Abuse and Neglect, 20, 933-942.
16.
Bernstein, E.
, & Putnam, F. W. (1986). Development, reliability and validity of a dissociation scale. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 174(12), 727-735.
17.
Bettelheim, B.
(1969). The empty fortress. New York: Free Press.
18.
Boat, B. W.
(1991). Caregivers as surrogate therapists in treatment of a ritualistically abused child. In W. N. Friedrich (Ed.), Casebook of sexual abuse treatment (pp. 1-26). New York: Norton.
19.
Bowman, E. S.
(1990). Adolescent MPD in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Dissociation, 3(4), 179-187.
20.
Bowman, E. S.
, Blix, S. F., & Coons, P. M. (1985). Multiple personality in adolescence: Relationship to incestual experience. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 24(1), 109-114.
21.
Braun, B. G.
(1985). The transgenerational incidence of dissociation and multiple personality disorder: A preliminary report. In R. P. Kluft (Ed.), Childhood antecedents of multiple personality disorder (pp. 127-150). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
22.
Briere, J.
(1996). The trauma symptom checklist for children. Odessa, FL: PAR.
23.
Cagiada, S.
, Camaido, L., & Pennan, A. (1997). Successful integrated hypnotic and psychopharmacological treatment of a war-related post-traumatic psychological and somatoform dissociative disorder of two years duration (psychogenic coma). Dissociation, 10, 182-189.
24.
Carlson, E. A.
(1998). A prospective longitudinal study of attachment disorganization/disorientation. Child Development, 69, 1107-1128.
25.
Carlson, E. B.
, Putnam, F. W., Ross, C. A., Torem, M., Coons, P. L., & Loewenstein, R. J. (1993). Validity of the dissociative experiences scale: A multi center study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1030-1036.
26.
Chaffin, M.
, Lawson, L., Selby, A., & Wherry, J. N. (1997). False negatives in sexual abuse interviews: Preliminary investigation of a relationship to dissociation. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 6, 15-29.
27.
Chu, J. A.
(1998). Rebuilding shattered lives. New York: Wiley.
28.
Chu, J. A.
, & Dill, D. L. (1990). Dissociative symptoms in relation to childhood physical and sexual abuse. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 887-892.
29.
Cicchetti, D.
, & Toth, S. L. (1997). Transactional ecological systems in developmental psychopathology. In S. S. Luthar, J. S. Burack, D. Cicchetti, & J. R. Weisz (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (pp. 317-349). New York: Cambridge University Press.
30.
Coons, P. M.
(1985). Children of parents with multiple personality disorder. In R. P. Kluft (Ed.), Childhood antecedents of multiple personality disorder (pp. 151-165). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
31.
Coons, P. M.
(1994). Confirmation of childhood abuse in childhood and adolescent cases of multiple personality disorder and dissociative disorder not otherwise specified. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 182, 461-464.
32.
Coons, P. M.
(1996). Clinical phenomenology of 25 children and adolescents with dissociative disorders. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 5, 361-374.
33.
Coons, P. M.
, Bowman, E. S., & Milstein, V. (1988). Multiple personality disorder: A clinical investigation of 50 cases. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 176, 519-527.
34.
Coons, P. M.
, & Milstein, V. (1992). Psychogenic amnesia: A clinical investigation of 25 cases. Dissociation, 5, 361-375.
35.
Corwin, D.
, & Olafson, E. (1997). Videotaped discovery of a reportedly unrecallable memory of child abuse: Comparison with a childhood interview taped 11 years before. Child Maltreatment, 2, 91-112.
36.
Courtois, C. A.
(1997). Guidelines for the treatment of adults abused or possibly abused as children. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 51, 497-510.
37.
Dallam, S.
(1998). The criminalization of psychotherapy. Treating Abuse Today, 85, 15-25.
38.
Damasio, A.
(1999). The feeling of what happens. New York: Harcourt Brace.
39.
Dell, D. F.
, & Eisenhower, J. W. (1990). Adolescent multiple personality disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 29(3), 359-366.
40.
Dixon, J. C.
(1963). Depersonalization phenomena in a sample population of college students. British Journal of Psychiatry, 109, 371-375.
41.
Dollinger, S. J.
(1983). A case report of dissociative neurosis (depersonalization disorder) in an adolescent treated with family therapy and behavior modification. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51(4), 479-484.
42.
Donner
, (Director). (1992). Radio flyer [Film]. Columbia Tristar Home Video.
43.
Donovan, D. M.
(1997). Why memory is a red herring in the recovered (traumatic) memory debate. In J. D. Read & D. S. Lindsay (Eds.), Recollection of trauma: Scientific, research & clinical practice (pp. 403-415). New York: Plenum.
44.
Donovan, D. M.
, & McIntyre, D. (1990). Healing the hurt child. New York: Norton.
45.
Donovan, D. M.
, & McIntyre, D. (1999). What did I just say!?!New York: Henry Holt.
46.
Duggal, S.
, & Sroufe, L. A. (1998). Recovered memory of childhood sexual trauma: A documented case from a longitudinal study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 301-322.
47.
Eckstein, R.
(1966). Children of time and space, of action and impulse. New York: Jason Aronson.
48.
Egeland, B.
, & Sussman-Stillman, A. (1996). Dissociation as a mediator of child abuse across generations. Child Abuse & Neglect, 20, 1123-1132.
49.
Eisen, M. L.
, Goodman, G. S., Qin, J., & Davis, S. L. (1998). Memory and suggestibility in maltreated children: New research relevant to evaluating allegations of abuse. In S. Lynn & K. M. McConkey (Eds.), Truth in memory (pp. 163-189). New York: Guilford.
50.
Evers-Szostak, M.
, & Sanders, S. (1992). The Children's Perceptual Alteration Scale (CPAS): A measure of children's dissociation. Dissociation, 5(2), 91-97.
51.
Fagan, J.
, & McMahon, P. P. (1984). Incipient multiple personality in children. Journal of nervous and Mental Disease, 172, 26-36.
52.
Fine, C. G.
(1988). The work of Antoine Despine: The first scientific report on the diagnosis and treatment of a child with multiple personality disorder. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 31, 33-39.
53.
Fisher, G. C.
, Mitchell, I., & Murdoch, D. (1993). Munchausen's syndrome by proxy: The question of psychiatric illness in a child. British Journal of Psychiatry, 701-703.
54.
Fonagy, P.
(1998). Attachment theory approach to treatment of the difficult patient. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 62, 147-169.
55.
Friedrich, W. N.
(1990). Psychotherapy of sexually abused children and their families. New York: Norton.
56.
Friedrich, W. N.
(1991). Hypnotherapy with traumatized children. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 39, 67-81.
57.
Friedrich, W. N.
(1996). Psychotherapy with sexually abused boys. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
58.
Friedrich, W. N.
, Jaworski, T. M., Huxsahl, J. E., & Bengston, B. S. (1997). Dissociative and sexual behaviors in children and adolescents with sexual abuse and psychiatric histories. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 12(2), 155-171.
59.
Frost, J.
, Silberg, J. L., & McIntee, J. (1996). Imaginary friends in normal and traumatized children. Paper presented at the 13th International Conference on Dissociative Disorders, San Francisco, CA.
60.
Gartner, J.
, Weintraub, S., & Carlson, G. A. (1997). Childhood onset psychosis: Evaluation and co-morbidity (clinical case conference). American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 256-261.
61.
Gazzaniga, M. S.
(1998). The mind's past. Berkeley: University of California Press.
62.
Gil, E.
(1991). The healing power of play. New York: Guilford.
63.
Gil, E.
(1996). Treating abused adolescents. New York: Guilford.
64.
Goodwin, J.
(1989). Sexual abuse: Incest victims and their families (2nd ed.). Chicago: Year Book Medical.
65.
Hopkins, J.
(1984). The probable role of trauma in a case of foot and shoe fetishism: Aspect of the psychotherapy of a 6-year-old girl. International Review of Psychoanalysis, 11, 79-92.
66.
Hornstein, N. L.
, & Putnam, F. W. (1992). Clinical phenomenology of child and adolescent dissociative disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 1077-1085.
67.
Hornstein, N. L.
, & Putnam, F. W. (1996). Abuse and the development of dissociative symptoms and dissociative identity disorder. In C. R. Pfeffer (Ed.), Severe stress and mental disturbance in children (pp. 449-473). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
68.
Hornstein, N. L.
, & Tyson, S. (1991). Inpatient treatment of children with multiple personality/dissociation and their families. Psychiatric Clinics of North America—M.D., 3, 631-648.
69.
Hughes, D.
(1998). Building the bonds of attachment. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson.
70.
Jacobsen, T.
(1995). Case study: Is selective mutism a manifestation of dissociative identity disorder?Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 1077-1085.
71.
Jang, K. L.Paris, J.
, Zweig-Frank, H., & Livelsley, W. J. (1998). Twin study of dissociative experience. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 186, 345-351.
72.
James, B.
(1989). Treating traumatized children. New York: Free Press.
73.
Jensen, P. S.
, & Watanabe, H. (1999). Sherlock Holmes and child psychopathology assessment approaches: The case of the false positives. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 138-146.
74.
Jewison, N.
(Director). (1996). Bogus [Film]. Warner Brothers.
75.
Jones, D. P.
(1986). Individual psychotherapy for the sexually abused child. Child Abuse and Neglect, 10, 377-385.
76.
Keller, R.
, & Shaywitz, B. A. (1986). Amnesia or fugue state: A diagnostic dilemma. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 7(2), 131-132.
77.
Klein, H.
, Mann, D. R., & Goodwin, J. M. (1994). Obstacles to the recognition of sexual abuse and dissociative disorders in child and adolescent males. Dissociation, 7, 138-144.
78.
Kluft, R. P.
(1984). M.P.D. in childhood. Psychiatric Clinics of North America—MPD, 7, 121-134.
79.
Kluft, R. P.
(1985a). Childhood multiple personality disorder: Predictors, clinical findings and treatment results. In R. P. Kluft (Ed.), Childhood antecedents of multiple personality (pp. 167-196). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
80.
Kluft, R. P.
(1985b). Hypnotherapy of childhood multiple personality disorder. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 27, 201-210.
81.
Kluft, R. P.
(1996). Outpatient treatment of dissociative identity disorder and allied forms of dissociative disorders not otherwise specified in children and adolescents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 5, 471-494.
82.
Kluft, R. P.
, & Fine, C. C. (Eds.). (1993). Clinical perspectives on multiple personality disorder. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
83.
Laporta, L. D.
(1992). Childhood trauma and multiple personality disorder: The case of a 9-year-old girl. Child Abuse & Neglect, 16, 615-620.
84.
Lask, B.
, Britten, C., Kroll, L., Magagna, J., & Tranter, M. (1991). Children with pervasive refusal. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 66, 866-869.
85.
LeDoux, J.
(1996). The emotional brain. New York: Touchstone.
86.
Lewis, D. O.
(1996). Diagnostic evaluation of the child and adolescent with dissociative identity disorder/multiple personality disorder. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 5, 303-331.
87.
Lewis, D. O.
, & Yeager, C. A. (1996). Dissociative identity disorder/multiple personality disorder. In M. Lewis (Ed.), Child and adolescent psychiatry: A comprehensive textbook (2nd ed., pp. 702-716). Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.
88.
Lieberman, A. F.
(1997). Toddler's internalizations of maternal attributions as a factor in quality of attachment. In L. Atkinson & K. J. Zucker (Eds.), Attachment and psychopathology (pp. 277-291). New York: Guilford.
89.
Liotti, G.
(1995). Disorganized/disoriented attachment in the psychotherapy of the dissociative disorders. In S. Goldberg, R. Muir, & J. Kerr (Eds.), Attachment theory: Developmental and clinical perspectives (pp. 343-366). Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press.
90.
Loewenstein, R. J.
(1991). Psychogenic amnesia and psychogenic fugue: A comprehensive review. In A. Tasman & S. M. Goldfinger (Eds.), Review of psychiatry (pp. 189-221). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
91.
Loewenstein, R. J.
(1994). Diagnosis, epidemiology, clinical course, treatment, and cost effectiveness of treatment for dissociative disorders and MPD: Report submitted to the Clinton administration task force on health care financing reform. Dissociation, 7, 3-11.
92.
Malenbaum, R.
, & Russel, A. T. (1987). Multiple personality disorder in an eleven-year-old boy and his mother. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26(3), 436-439.
93.
Malinosky-Rummel, R. R.
, & Hoier, T. S. (1991). Validating measures of dissociation in sexually abused and nonabused children. Behavioral Assessment, 13, 341-357.
94.
Mann, B. J.
, & Sanders, S. (1994). Child dissociation and the family context. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22, 373-388.
95.
McHugh, P. R.
(1992). Psychiatric misadventures. American Scholar, 160, 497-510.
96.
McHugh, P. R.
, & Putnam, F. W. (1995). Resolved: Multiple personality is an individually and socially created artifact. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 957-959.
97.
McKellar, A.
(1978). Depersonalization in a 16-year-old boy. Southern Medical Journal, 71(12), 1580-1581.
98.
McMahon, P. P.
, & Fagan, J. (1993). Play therapy with children with multiple personality disorder. In R. P. Kluft & C. C. Fine (Eds.), Clinical perspectives on multiple personality disorder (pp. 253-276). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
99.
Mersky, H.
(1992). Manufacture of personalities. British Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 327-340.
100.
Michelson, L. K.
, & Ray, W.J. (Eds.). (1996). Handbook of dissociation: Theoretical, empirical, and clinical perspectives. New York: Plenum.
101.
Mulder, R. T.
, Beautrais, A., Joyce, P.R., & Fergusson, D. M. (1998). Relationship between dissociation, childhood sexual abuse, childhood physical abuse, and mental illness in a general population sample. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 806-811.
102.
Nash, M. R.
, Hulsey, T. L., Sexton, M. C., Harralson, T. L., & Lambert, W. (1993). Long-term sequelae of childhood sexual abuse: Perceived family environment, psychopathology and dissociation. Journal of Clinical and Consulting Psychology, 61, 256-283.
103.
Nijenhuis, E.R.S.
, Spinhoven, P., Vanderlinden, J., van Dyck, R., & van der Hart, O. (1998). Somatoform dissociative symptoms as related to animal defensive reactions to predatory imminence and injury. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 63-73.
104.
Nijenhuis, E.R.S.
, Vanderlinden,J., & Spinhoven, P. (1998). Animal defensive reaction as a model for trauma-induced dissociative processes. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 243-260.
105.
Norretranders, T.
(1998). The user illusion. New York: Viking.
106.
Novick, K. K.
(1997). Ego disruptions in an abused little girl. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 17, 267-285.
107.
Nurcombe, B.
, Mitchell, W., Begtrup, R., Tramontana, M., LaBarbera, J., & Pruitt, J. (1996). Dissociative hallucinosis and allied conditions. In F. Volkmar (Ed.), Psychosis and pervasive developmental disorders in childhood and adolescence (pp. 107-128). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
108.
Ogawa, J. R.
, Sroufe, L. A., Weinfield, N. S., Carlson, E. A., & Egeland, B. (1997). Development and the fragmented self: Longitudinal study of dissociative symptomatology in a nonclinical sample. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 855-879.
109.
Okano, K.
(1997). A notion of dissociogenic stress. Dissociation, 10, 130-135.
110.
Orbach, I.
(1989). Familial and intrapsychic splits in suicidal adolescents. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 43, 356-367.
111.
Orbach, I.
, Mikulincer, M., King, R., Cohen, D., & Stein, D. (1997). Thresholds and tolerance of physical pain in suicidal and non-suicidal adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 646-652.
112.
Parson, E. R.
(1996). Child trauma therapy: Its role in managing the effects of trauma, loss, damaged attachment and dissociation in children exposed to lethal urban community violence. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 26, 117-161.
113.
Pearce, J. W.
, & Pezzot-Pearce, T. D. (1997). Psychotherapy of abused and neglected children. New York: Guilford.
114.
Perry, B. C.
, Pollard, R. A., Blakely, T. L., Baker, W. L., & Vigilante, D. (1995). Childhood trauma. The neurobiology of adaptation, and “use-dependent” development of the brain: How “states” become “traits.”Infant Mental Health Journal, 16, 271-291.
115.
Peters, J.
, Silberg,J. L., & Fagen, D. (1998). Factitious disorder by proxy and dissociative symptoms in children: Exploring new connections. Paper presented at the 15th International Congress of the International Society for the Study of Dissociation, Seattle, WA.
116.
Peterson, G.
(1991). Children coping with trauma: Diagnosis of “dissociation identity disorder.”Dissociation, 4(3), 152-164.
117.
Peterson, G.
(1996). Diagnostic taxonomy: Past to future. In J. L. Silberg (Ed.), The dissociative child: Diagnosis, treatment, and management (pp. 4-26). Lutherville, MD: Sidran Press.
118.
Peterson, G.
, & Boat, B. W. (1997). Concerns and issues in treating children of parents diagnosed with dissociative identity disorder. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 6, 1-14.
119.
Peterson, G.
, & Putnam, F. W. (1994). Preliminary results of the field trial of proposed criteria for dissociative disorder of childhood. Dissociation, 7, 212-220.
120.
Piper, A.
(1997). Hoax and reality. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson.
121.
Prior, S.
(1997). Object relations in severe trauma. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson.
122.
Putnam, F. W.
(1989). The diagnosis and treatment of multiple personality disorder. New York: Guilford.
123.
Putnam, F. W.
(1997). Dissociation in children and adolescents. New York: Guilford.
124.
Putnam, F. W.
, Guroff, J., Silberman, E., Barban, L., & Post, R. (1986). The clinical phenomenology of multiple personality disorder: Review of 100 recent cases. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 47, 285-293.
125.
Putnam, F. W.
, Helmers, K., Horowitz, L. A., & Trickett, P. K. (1995). Hypnotizability and dissociativity in sexually abused girls. Child Abuse and Neglect, 19, 645-655.
126.
Putnam, F. W.
, Helmers, K., & Trickett, P. K. (1993). Development, reliability, and validity of a child dissociation scale. Child Abuse and Neglect, 17, 731-741.
127.
Putnam, F. W.
, Hornstein, N., & Peterson, G. (1996). Clinical phenomenology of child and adolescent dissociative disorders: Gender and age effects. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 5, 303-442.
128.
Putnam, F. W.
, & Peterson, G. (1994). Further validation of the child dissociation checklist. Dissociation, 7, 204-211.
129.
Reagor, P. A.
, Kasten, J. D., & Morelli, M. A. (1992). A checklist for screening dissociative disorders in children and adolescents. Dissociation, 5(1), 4-19.
130.
Reckling,A.E.
, & Buirski, P. (1996). Child abuse, self-development and affect regulation. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 13, 81-89.
131.
Rhue, J. W.
, Lynn, S.J., & Sandberg, D. (1995). Dissociation, fantasy and imagination in childhood: A comparison of physically abused, sexually abused, and non-abused children. Contemporary Hypnosis, 12, 131-136.
132.
Riley, R. L.
, & Mead, J. (1988). The development of symptoms of multiple personality in a child of three. Dissociation, 1(3), 41-46.
133.
Rivera, M.
(1996). More alike than different. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press.
134.
Roburg, G.
, Bagley, C., & Wellings, D. (1990, November). Dissociative disorders and abused children. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Multiple Personality/Dissociative States, Chicago.
135.
Ross, C. A.
(1996). Epidemiology of dissociation in children and adolescents: Extrapolations and speculations. Child and Adolescent Clinics of North America, 5, 273-284.
136.
Ross, C. A.
(1997). Dissociative identity disorder: Diagnosis, clinical features, and treatment of multiple personality disorder. New York: Wiley.
137.
Ross, C. A.
, Miller, S. D., Reagor, P., Bjornson, L., Fraser, G. A., & Anderson, G. (1990). Structured interview data on 102 cases of multiple personality disorder from four centers. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 596-601.
138.
Ross, C. A.
, Norton, G. R., & Wozney, K. (1989). Multiple personality disorder: An analysis of 236 cases. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 34, 413-418.
139.
Sanders, B.
, & Giolas, M. H. (1991). Dissociation and childhood trauma in psychologically disturbed adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148(1), 50-54.
140.
Sar, V.
, Unal, S. N., Kiziltan, E., & Kiziltan, K. (1998, November). Frontal and parietal hypoperfusion in dissociative identity disorder. International Society for the Study of Dissociation International Fall Conference, Seattle, WA.
141.
Schore, A.
(1994). Affect regulation and the origins of self. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
142.
Schreier, H.A.
(1997). Factitious presentation psychiatric disorder: When is it Munchausen by proxy?Child Psychology and Psychiatry Review, 2(3), 108-115.
143.
Shimizu, M.
, & Sakamato, S. (1986). Depersonalization in early adolescence. Japanese Journal of Psychiatry and Neurology, 40, 603-608.
144.
Shirar, L.
(1996). Dissociative children. New York: Norton.
145.
Siegel, D. J.
(1996). Cognition, memory and dissociation. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 5, 509-533.
146.
Siegel, D. J.
(1999). The developing brain. New York: Guilford.
147.
Silberg, J. L.
(Ed.). (1996a). The dissociative child: Diagnosis, treatment, and management. Baltimore, MD: Sidran Press.
148.
Silberg, J. L.
(1996b). Interviewing strategies for assessing dissociative disorders in children and adolescents. In J. Silberg (Ed.), The dissociative child (pp. 47-68). Lutherville, MD: Sidran Press.
149.
Silberg, J. L.
(1998a). Afterword. In J. L. Silberg (Ed.), The dissociative child (2nd ed., pp. 333-349). Lutherville, MD: Sidran Press.
150.
Silberg, J. L.
(1998b). Dissociative symptomatology in children and adolescents as displayed on psychological testing. Journal of Personality Assessment, 71, 421-439.
151.
Silberg, J. L.
(in press). Treating maladaptive dissociation in a young teenage girl. In H. Orvaschel, J. Faust, & M. Hersen (Eds.), Handbook of conceptualization and treatment of child psychopathology. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science LTD.
152.
Silberg, J. L.
, McIntee,J., & Grimminck, E. (1998). Dissociative symptoms and disorders in traumatized children: Cross-cultural case studies. Paper presented at the 14th International Congress of the International Association of Child and Adolescent Psychiatrists and Allied Professionals, Stockholm, Sweden.
153.
Silberg, J. L.
, & Nemzer, E. D. (1998, May). Dissociative symptoms in children [Letter to the editor]. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 708-709.
154.
Silberg, J. L.
, Stipic, D., & Taghizadeh, F. (1997). Dissociative disorders in children and adolescents. In J. Noshpitz (Ed.), Handbook of child and adolescent psychiatry (Vol. 3, pp. 329-355). New York: Wiley.
155.
Silberg, J. L.
, & Waters, F. W. (1996). Factors associated with positive therapeutic outcome. In J. Silberg (Ed.), The dissociative child (pp. 105-112). Lutherville, MD: Sidran Press.
156.
Simeon, D.
, Gross, S., Guralnik, O., Stein, D. J., Schmeidler, J., & Hollander, E. (1997). Feeling unreal: 30 cases of diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Depersonalization disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1107-1113.
157.
Smith, S. R.
, & Carlson, E. B. (1996). Reliability and validity of the adolescent dissociative experiences scale. Dissociation, 9(2), 125-129.
158.
Snow, M. S.
, White, J., Pilkington, L., & Beckman, D. (1995). Dissociative identity disorder revealed through play therapy: A case study of a four-year-old. Dissociation, 8, 120-123.
159.
Steinberg, M.
(1991). The spectrum of depersonalization: Assessment and treatment. In A. Tasman & S. M. Goldfinger (Eds.), Review of psychiatry (pp. 223-247). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
160.
Steinberg, M.
(1994). Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV. Dissociative disorders-revised (SCID-D-R). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
161.
Steinberg, M.
(1996, April). Diagnostic tools for assessing dissociation in children and adolescents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics, 5(2), 333-350.
162.
Steinberg, M.
, & Steinberg, A. (1995). Using the SCID-D to assess dissociative identity disorder in adolescents: Three case studies. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 59(2), 221-231.
163.
Swica, Y.
, Lewis, D. O., & Lewis, M. (1996). Child abuse and dissociative identity disorder/multiple personality disorder: The documentation of childhood maltreatment and the corroboration of symptoms. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 5, 431-448.
164.
Szymanski, H. V.
(1981). Prolonged depersonalization after marijuana use. American Journal of Psychiatry, 138(2), 231-233.
165.
Tillman, J. G.
, Nash, M. R., & Lerner, P. M. (1994). Does trauma cause dissociative pathology? In S. J. Lynn & J. W. Rhue (Eds.), Dissociation: Clinical and theoretical perspectives (pp. 395-414). New York: Guilford.
166.
Trangkasombat, U.
, Sumpan, U., Churujikul, V., Prinksulka, K., Nukhew, O., & Haruhanspong, V. (1995). Epidemic dissociation among school children in southern Thailand. Dissociation, 7, 130-141.
167.
Trousdale, G.
, & Wise, K. (Directors). (1996). The hunchback of Notre Dame [Film]. Buena Vista Pictures.
168.
Venn, J.
(1984). Family etiology and remission in a case of psychogenic fugue. Family Process, 23, 429-435.
169.
Vincent, M.
, & Pickering, M. R. (1988). Multiple personality in childhood. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 33, 524-529.
170.
Waller, N. G.
, Putnam, F. W., & Carlson, E. B. (1996). Types of dissociation and dissociative types: A taxometric analysis of dissociative experiences. Psychological Methods, 1, 300-321.
171.
Waller, N. G.
, & Ross, C. A. (1997). The prevalence and biometric structure of pathological dissociation in the general population: Taxometric and behavior genetic findings. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 499-510.
172.
Waterbury, M.
(1991, November). Dissociative disorders in 170 abused inner city children. Paper presented at the 8th International Conference on Multiple Personality Dissociative States, Rush Presbyterian, St. Luke's Medical Center, Chicago.
173.
Waters, F. W.
(1996). Parents as partners in the treatment of dissociative children. In J. Silberg (Ed.), The dissociative child (pp. 273-296). Lutherville, MD: Sidran Press.
174.
Waters, F. W.
, & Silberg, J. L. (1996). Promoting integration in dissociative children. In J. Silberg (Ed.), The dissociative child (pp. 167-190). Lutherville, MD: Sidran Press.
175.
Weiss, M.
, Sutton, P. J., & Utecht, A. J. (1985). Multiple personality in a 10-year-old girl. Journal of The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 24(4), 495-501.
176.
Wieland, S.
(1997). Hearing the internal trauma. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
177.
Wieland, S.
(1998). Techniques and issues in abuse-focused therapy. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
178.
Williams, D. T.
, & Velazquez, L. (1996). The use of hypnosis in children with dissociative disorders. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 5, 495-508.
179.
Wolff, P.
(1987). The development of behavioral states and the expressions of emotions in early infancy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
180.
Yeager, C. A.
, & Lewis, D. O. (1996). The intergenerational transmission of violence and dissociation. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 5, 393-430.
181.
Zoruglu, S.
, Yargic, I., Tutkun, H., Ozturk, M., & Sar, V. (1996). Dissociative identity disorder in childhood: Five Turkish cases. Dissociation, 9, 253-260.
