This article describes the historical evolution of U.S. federal education policy as it pertains to the constructs of disability and giftedness, which were originally treated as distinct domains. However, policy shifts and research initiatives revealed the intersection of the two domains, which led to recognition of twice-exceptional individuals as learners with unique needs related to talent development. Evolving definitions and educational practice shaped two decades of research. A case-example highlights the importance of comprehensive psychoeducational evaluations to understand the nuanced educational and social-emotional needs of twice-exceptional learners. Seven recommendations focus on strength-based approaches to educational practice.
AssoulineS. G.Foley NicponM.DockeryL. (2012). Predicting the academic achievement of gifted students with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(9), 1781–1789. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-011-1403-x
2.
AssoulineS. G.Foley-NicponM.WhitemanC. S. (2010). Cognitive and psychosocial characteristics of gifted students with written language disability. Gifted Child Quarterly, 54(2), 102–115. https://doi.org/10.1177/0016986209355974
3.
AssoulineS. G.WhitemanC. S. (2011). Twice-exceptionality: Implications for school psychologists in the post–IDEA 2004 era. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 27(4), 380–402. https://doi.org/10.1080/15377903.2011.616576
4.
CastenL. G.ThomasT. R.DoobayA. F.Foley-NicponM.KramerS.Nickl-JockschatT.AbelT.AssoulineS.MichaelsonJ. J. (2023). The combination of autism and exceptional cognitive ability is associated with suicidal ideation. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 188, 107–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2022.107698
5.
DoobayA. F.Foley-NicponM.AliS. R.AssoulineS. G. (2014). Cognitive, adaptive, and psychosocial differences between high ability youth with and without autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(8), 2026–2040. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2082-1
6.
Education for All Handicapped Children Act. (1975). Pub. L. No. 94-142, 89 Stat. 773.
7.
FerriB. A.GreggN.HeggoyS. J. (1997). Profiles of college students demonstrating learning disabilities with and without giftedness. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30(5), 552–559. https://doi.org/10.1177/002221949703000511
8.
Foley NicponM.AllmonA.SieckB.StinsonR. D. (2011). Empirical investigation of twice-exceptionality: Where have we been and where are we going?Gifted Child Quarterly, 55(1), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/0016986210382575
9.
Foley-NicponM.AssoulineS. G. (2020). High ability students with coexisting disabilities: Implications for school psychological practice. Psychology in the Schools, 57, 1615–1626. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22342
10.
Foley-NicponM.RickelsH.AssoulineS. G.RichardsA. (2012). Self-esteem and self-concept examination among gifted students with ADHD. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 35(3), 220–240. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162353212451735
11.
GallagherJ. J. (1988). National agenda for educating gifted students: Statement of priorities. Exceptional Children, 55(2), 107–114. (Original work published 1988). https://doi.org/10.1177/001440298805500202
12.
GerkenK. (1978). An unseen minority: Handicapped individual who are gifted and talented. In ColangeloN.ZaffranR. (Eds.), New voices in counseling the gifted (pp. 117–130). Kendall/Hunt.
13.
HedleyD.UljarevićM.FoleyK.-R.RichdaleA.TrollerJ. (2018). Risk and protective factors underlying depression and suicidal ideation in autism spectrum disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 35(7), 648–657. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22759
14.
LeBeauB.AssoulineS. G.Foley-NicponM.Lupkowski-ShoplikA.SchabilionK. (2025). Likelihood of whole-grade or subject acceleration for twice-exceptional students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 69(3), 237–254. https://doi.org/10.1177/00169862241302813
15.
MaddocksD. (2018). The identification of students who are gifted and have a learning disability: A comparison of different diagnostic criteria. Gifted Child Quarterly, 62(2), 175–192. https://doi.org/10.1177/0016986217752096
16.
MarlandS. P.Jr. (1972). Education of the gifted and talented: Report to the Congress of the United States by the U.S. Commissioner of education (vols. 1–2). U.S. Government Printing Office. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED056243
17.
MatherN.WendlingB. J. (2010). How SLD manifests in writing. In FlanaganD. P.AlfonsoV. (Eds.), Essentials of specific learning disability identification (pp. 65–88). John Wiley & Sons.
18.
MichaelsonJ. J.DoobayA.CardenasC.SchabilionK.Foley-NicponM.Nickl-JochschatT.AbelT.AssoulineS. G. (2022). Autism in gifted youth is associated with low processing speed and high verbal ability. medRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.11.02.21265802
ReisS. M.BaumS. M.BurkeE. (2014). An operational definition of twice-exceptional learners: Implications and applications. Gifted Child Quarterly, 58(3), 217–230. https://doi.org/10.1177/0016986214534976
21.
ReisS. M.McGuireJ. M.NeuT. W. (2000). Compensation strategies used by high-ability students with learning disabilities who succeed in college. Gifted Child Quarterly, 44(2), 123–134. https://doi.org/10.1177/001698620004400205
22.
ReisS. M.NeuT. W.McGuireJ. M. (1995). Talents in two places: Case studies of high ability students with learning disabilities who have achieved (research monograph 95114). The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented. University of Connecticut. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED388021
23.
SchabilionK. (2020). Investigating cognitive and psychosocial variables related to diagnosis of SLD in writing among high-ability students. (Publication No. 27830663) [Doctoral Dissertation, University of Iowa]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.
