Verbal aggression (VA) is the most prevalent form of aggression perpetrated, experienced, and witnessed by students, with victims experiencing a variety of adverse outcomes. Furthermore, VA is known to contribute to physical aggression, especially for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Despite the high prevalence, researchers suggest that school personnel may not understand the harmful nature of VA. We summarize research about VA, suggest schoolwide initiatives, and propose effective interventions for perpetrators, victims, and bystanders.
BaumanS.MeterD. J.NixonC.DavisS. (2016). Targets of peer mistreatment: Do they tell adults? What happens when they do?Teaching and Teacher Education, 57, 118–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.03.013
2.
CardN. A.SawalaniG. M.StuckyB. D.LittleT. D. (2008). Direct and indirect aggression during childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic review of gender differences intercorrelations, and relations to maladjustment. Child Development, 79(5), 1185–1229. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01184.x
3.
ColeA. D.MartinN. C.SterbaS. K.Sinclair-McBrideK.RoederK. M.ZelkowitzR.BilskyS. A. (2014). Peer victimization (and harsh parenting) as developmental correlates of cognitive reactivity, a diathesis for depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 123(2), 336–349. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036489
4.
EklundK.DowdyE. (2014). Screening for behavioral and emotional risk versus traditional school identification methods. School Mental Health, 6(1), 40–49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-013-9109-1
5.
EllisA. A.ShuteR. (2007). Teacher responses to bullying in relation to moral orientation and seriousness of bullying. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(3), 649–663. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709906X163405
6.
GamlielT.HooverJ. H.DaughtryD. W.ImbraC. M. (2003). A qualitative investigation of bullying: The perspectives of fifth, sixth and seventh graders in a USA parochial school. School Psychology International, 24(4), 405–420. https://doi.org/10.1177/01430343030244004
7.
GeigerB.FischerM. (2006). Will words ever harm me? Escalation from verbal to physical abuse in sixth-grade classrooms. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21(3), 337–357. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260505282886
8.
GerlingerJ.WoJ. C. (2015). Preventing school bullying: Should schools prioritize an authoritative school discipline approach over security measures?Journal of School Violence, 15(2), 133–157. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2014.956321
9.
GoldweberA.WaasdorpT. E.BradshawC. P. (2013). Examining the link between forms of bullying behaviors and perceptions of safety and belonging among secondary school students. Journal of School Psychology, 51(4), 469–485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2013.04.004
10.
GregoryA.CornellD.FanX.SherasP.ShihT. H.HuangF. (2010). Authoritative school discipline: High school practices associated with lower bullying and victimization. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(2), 483–496. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018562
11.
HamburgerM. E.BasileK. C.VivoloA. M. (2011). Measuring bullying victimization, perpetration, and bystander experiences: A compendium of assessment tools. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/5994
12.
HillardP.LoveL.FranksH. M.LarisB. A.CoyleK. K. (2013). “They were only joking”: Efforts to decrease LGBTQ bullying and harassment in Seattle public schools. Journal of School Health, 84(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12120
13.
HymelS.SwearerS. M. (2015). Four decades of research on school bullying: An introduction. American Psychologist, 70(4), 293–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038928
14.
KärnäA.VoetenM.LittleT. D.PoskipartaE.KaljonenA.SalmivalliC. (2011). A large-scale evaluation of the KiVa antibullying program: Grades 4–6. Child Development, 82(1), 311–330. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01557.x
15.
LevittJ. M.SakaN.RomanelliL. H.HoagwoodK. (2007). Early identification of mental health problems in schools: The status of instrumentation. Journal of School Psychology, 45(2), 163–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2006.11.005
16.
LindwallJ. J.ColemanH. L. K. (2011). The school counselor’s role in creating caring school communities. In ColemanH. L. K.YehC. (Eds.), Handbook of school counseling (pp. 351–377). Routledge.
17.
MorrowM. T.HubbardJ. A.BarhightL. J.ThomsonA. K. (2014). Fifth-grade children’s daily experiences of peer victimization and negative emotions: Moderating effects of sex and peer rejection. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42(7), 1089–1102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9870-0
NishiokaV.CoeM.BurkeA.HanitaM.SpragueJ. (2011). Student reported overt and relational aggression and victimization in grades 3-8 (Issues & Answers Report, REL 2011-No. 144). Regional Educational Laboratory at Education Northwest. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED518227.pdf
20.
OlweusD. (2010). Foundations for understanding bullying. In JimersonS. R.SwearerS. M.EspelageD. L. (Eds.), The handbook of bullying in schools: An international perspective (pp. 9–33). Routledge.
21.
OlweusD.LimberS. (2010). The Olweus Bullying Prevention Program Implementation and evaluation over two decades. In JimersonS. R.SwearerS. M.EspelageD. L. (Eds.), The handbook of bullying in schools: An international perspective (pp. 377–401). Routledge.
22.
Peleg-OrenN.CardenasA. G.ComerfordM.GaleaS. (2010). An association between bullying behaviors and alcohol use among middle school students. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 32(6), 761–775. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431610387144
23.
PerkinsH. W.PerkinsJ. M.CraigD. W. (2014). No safe haven: Locations of harassment and bullying victimization in middle schools. Journal of School Health, 84, 810–818. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12208
24.
PolingD. V.SmithS. W.TaylorG. G.WorthM. R. (2019). Direct verbal aggression in school settings: A review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 46, 127–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2019.01.010
25.
PuhlR. M.LuedickeJ.HeuerC. (2011). Weight-based victimization toward overweight adolescents: Observations and reactions of peers. Journal of School Healthy, 81(11), 696–703. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2011.00646.x
26.
RuegerS. Y.JenkinsL. N. (2014). Effects of peer victimization on psychological and academic adjustment in early adolescence. School Psychology Quarterly, 29(1), 77–88. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000036
27.
RusbyJ. C.ForresterK. K.BiglanA.MetzlerC. W. (2005). Relationships between peer harassment and adolescent problem behaviors. Journal of Early Adolescence, 25(4), 453–477. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431605279837
28.
SainioM.VeenstraR.HuitsingG.SalmivalliC. (2010). Victims and their defenders: A dyadic approach. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 35(2), 144–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025410378068
SalmivalliC.KaukiainenA.LagerspetzK. (2000). Aggression and sociometric status among peers: Do gender and type of aggression matter?Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 41(1), 17–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9450.00166
31.
SalmivalliC.LagerspetzK.BjörkqvistK.ÖstermanK.KaukiainenA. (1996). Bullying as a group process: Participant roles and their relations to social status within the group. Aggressive Behavior, 22(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1098-2337(1996)22:13.0.co;2-t
32.
ScottT. M.CooperJ. T. (2017). Functional behavior assessment and function-based intervention planning: Considering the simple logic of the process. Beyond Behavior, 26, 101–104. https://doi.org/10.1177/1074295617716113
33.
SmithS. W.PolingD. V.WorthM. R.ZhouS. J.TaylorG. G. (2020). Verbal aggression among students with emotional and behavioral disorders: Teacher perceptions of harm, levels of concern, and relationship with certification status. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 28, 209–222. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F1063426619885862
34.
TaylorG. G.SmithS. W. (2019). Teacher reports of verbal aggression in school settings among students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 27(1), 52–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F1063426617739638
35.
Troop-GordonW.LaddG. W. (2015). Teachers’ victimization-related beliefs and strategies: Associations with students’ aggressive behavior and peer victimization. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(1), 45–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9840-y
36.
WangJ.NanselT. R.IannottiR. J. (2011). Cyber and traditional bullying: Differential association with depression. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48(4), 415–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.07.012
37.
Webster-StrattonC.ReidM. J.HammondM. (2004). Treating children with early-onset conduct problems: Intervention outcomes for parent, child, and teacher training. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 33(1), 105–124. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15374424JCCP3301_11
38.
YbarraM. L.MitchellK. J. (2004). Online aggressor/targets, aggressors, and targets: A comparison of associated youth characteristics. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(7), 1308–1316. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00328.x