G protein-coupled receptors are a large family of signaling molecules that respond to a wide variety of extracellular stimuli. The receptors relay the information encoded by the ligand through the activation of heterotrimeric G proteins and intracellular effector molecules. To ensure the appropriate regulation of the signaling cascade, it is vital to properly inactivate the receptor. This inactivation is achieved, in part, by the binding of a soluble protein, arrestin, which uncouples the receptor from the downstream G protein. In addition to the inactivation of G protein-coupled receptors, arrestins have also been implicated in the endocytosis of receptors and cross talk with other signaling pathways. Due to its central role in cellular signaling, misregulation or misfunction of arrestin can have dramatic affects on cell viability and have direct implications in human disease.
Alloway PG, Dolph PJ. 1999. A role for the light-dependent phosphorylation of visual arrestin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A96:6072-6077.
2.
Alloway PG, Howard L, Dolph PJ. 2000. The formation of stable rhodopsin-arrestin complexes induces apoptosis and photoreceptor cell degeneration. Neuron28:129-138.
3.
Barak LS, Oakley RH, Laporte SA, Caron MG. 2001. Constitutive arrestin-mediated desensitization of a human vasopressin receptor mutant associated with nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A98:93-98.
4.
Bhatnagar A, Willins DL, Gray JA, Woods J, Benovic JL, Roth BL. 2001. The dynamin-dependent, arrestin-independent internalization of 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A (5-HT2A) serotonin receptors reveals differential sorting of arrestins and 5-HT2A receptors during endocytosis. J Biol Chem276:8269-8277.
5.
Bichet DG. 1998. Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. Am J Med105:431-442.
6.
Chen J, Simon MI, Matthes MT, Yasumura D, LaVail MM. 1999. Increased susceptibility to light damage in an arrestin knockout mouse model of Oguchi disease (stationary night blindness) [see comments]. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci40:2978-2982.
7.
Choi DW. 1995. Calcium: still center-stage in hypoxic-ischemic neuronal death. Trends Neurosci18:58-60.
8.
Dery O, Thoma MS, Wong H, Grady EF, Bunnett NW. 1999. Trafficking of proteinase-activated receptor-2 and beta-arrestin-1 tagged with green fluorescent protein. beta-arrestin-dependent endocytosis of a proteinase receptor. J Biol Chem274:18524-18535.
9.
Dolph PJ, Ranganathan R, Colley NJ, Hardy RW, Socolich M, Zuker CS. 1993. Arrestin function in inactivation of G protein-coupled receptor rhodopsin in vivo. Science260:1910-1916.
10.
Dryja TP. 2000. Molecular genetics of Oguchi disease, fundus albipunctatus, and other forms of stationary night blindness: LVII Edward Jackson Memorial Lecture. Am J Ophthalmol130:547-563.
11.
Ferguson SS, Barak LS, Zhang J, Caron MG. 1996a. G-protein-coupled receptor regulation: role of G-protein-coupled receptor kinases and arrestins. Can J Physiol Pharmacol74:1095-1110.
12.
Ferguson SS, Downey WE III, Colapietro AM, Barak LS, Menard L, Caron MG. 1996b. Role of beta-arrestin in mediating agonist-promoted G protein-coupled receptor internalization. Science271:363-366.
13.
Franklin JL, Sanz-Rodriguez C, Juhasz A, Deckwerth TL, Johnson EM Jr.1995. Chronic depolarization prevents programmed death of sympathetic neurons in vitro but does not support growth: requirement for Ca2+ influx but not Trk activation. J Neurosci15:643-664.
14.
Fuchs S, Nakazawa M, Maw M, Tamai M, Oguchi Y, Gal A.1995. A homozygous 1-base pair deletion in the arrestin gene is a frequent cause of Oguchi disease in Japanese. Nat Genet10:360-362.
15.
Goodman OB Jr, Krupnick JG, Santini F, Gurevich VV, Penn RB, Gagnon AW, Keen JH, Benovic JL. 1996. Beta-arrestin acts as a clathrin adaptor in endocytosis of the beta2-adrenergic receptor. Nature383:447-450.
16.
Granzin J, Wilden U, Choe HW, Labahn J, Krafft B, Buldt G.1998. X-ray crystal structure of arrestin from bovine rod outer segments. Nature391:918-921.
Gurevich VV, Benovic JL. 1995. Visual arrestin binding to rhodopsin: diverse functional roles of positively charged residues within the phosphorylation-recognition region of arrestin. J Biol Chem270:6010-6016.
19.
Hirsch JA, Schubert C, Gurevich VV, Sigler PB. 1999. The 2.8 A crystal structure of visual arrestin: a model for arrestin’s regulation. Cell97:257-269.
20.
Keen TJ, Inglehearn CF, Lester DH, Bashir R, Jay M, Bird AC, Jay B, Bhattacharya SS. 1991. Autosomal dominant retinitis pigmentosa: four new mutations in rhodopsin, one of them in the retinal attachment site. Genomics11:199-205.
21.
Kieselbach T, Irrgang KD, Ruppel H.1994. A segment corresponding to amino acids Val170-Arg182 of bovine arrestin is capable of binding to phosphorylated rhodopsin. Eur J Biochem226:87-97.
22.
Kirchhausen T.1999. Adaptors for clathrin-mediated traffic. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol15:705-732.
23.
Kiselev A, Socolich M, Vinos J, Hardy RW, Zuker CS, Ranganathan R.2000. A molecular pathway for light-dependent photoreceptor apoptosis in Drosophila. Neuron28:139-152.
24.
Kreuzer OJ, Krisch B, Dery O, Bunnett NW, Meyerhof W.2001. Agonist-mediated endocytosis of rat somatostatin receptor subtype 3 involves beta-arrestin and clathrin coated vesicles. J Neuroendocrinol13:279-287.
25.
Krupnick JG, Benovic JL. 1998. The role of receptor kinases and arrestins in G protein-coupled receptor regulation. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol38:289-319.
26.
Krupnick JG, Goodman OB Jr, Keen JH, Benovic JL. 1997a. Arrestin/clathrin interaction. Localization of the clathrin binding domain of nonvisual arrestins to the carboxy terminus. J Biol Chem272:15011-15016.
27.
Krupnick JG, Gurevich VV, Benovic JL1997b. Mechanism of quenching of phototransduction: binding competition between arrestin and transducin for phosphorhodopsin. J Biol Chem272:18125-18131.
28.
Krupnick JG, Santini F, Gagnon AW, Keen JH, Benovic JL. 1997c. Modulation of the arrestin-clathrin interaction in cells: characterization of beta-arrestin dominant-negative mutants. J Biol Chem272:32507-32512.
29.
Kühn H, Wilden U.1987. Deactivation of photoactivated rhodopsin by rhodopsin-kinase and arrestin. J Recept Res7:298-383.
30.
Laporte SA, Oakley RH, Holt JA, Barak LS, Caron MG. 2000. The interaction of beta-arrestin with the AP-2 adaptor is required for the clustering of beta 2-adrenergic receptor into clathrin-coated pits. J Biol Chem275:23120-23126.
31.
Lee KB, Pals-Rylaarsdam R, Benovic JL, Hosey MM. 1998. Arrestin-independent internalization of the m1, m3, and m4 subtypes of muscarinic cholinergic receptors. J Biol Chem273:12967-12972.
32.
LeVine HD, Smith DP, Whitney M, Malicki DM, Dolph PJ, Smith GF, Burkhart W, Zuker CS. 1990. Isolation of a novel visual-system-specific arrestin: an in vivo substrate for light-dependent phosphorylation. Mech Dev33:19-25.
33.
Li JG, Luo LY, Krupnick JG, Benovic JL, Liu-Chen LY. 1999. U50,488H-induced internalization of the human kappa opioid receptor involves a beta-arrestin- and dynamin-dependent mechanism: kappa receptor internalization is not required for mitogen-activated protein kinase activation. J Biol Chem274:12087-12094.
34.
Li T, Franson WK, Gordon JW, Berson EL, Dryja TP. 1995. Constitutive activation of phototransduction by K296E opsin is not a cause of photoreceptor degeneration. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A92:3551-3555.
35.
Lohse MJ, Benovic JL, Condina J, Caron MG, Lefkowitz RJ. 1990. β-arrestin: a protein that regulates β-adrenergic receptor function. Science248:1547-1550.
36.
Luttrell LM, Ferguson SS, Daaka Y, Miller WE, Maudsley S, Della Rocca GJ, Lin F, Kawakatsu H, Owada K, Luttrell DK, and others. 1999. Beta-arrestin-dependent formation of beta2 adrenergic receptor-Src protein kinase complexes. Science283:655-661.
37.
Matsumoto H, Kurien BT, Takagi Y, Kahn ES, Kinumi T, Komori N, Yamada T, Hayashi F, Isono K, Pak WL, and others. 1994. Phosrestin I undergoes the earliest light-induced phosphorylation by a calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase in Drosophilaphotoreceptors. Neuron12:997-1010.
38.
Maw M, Kumaramanickavel G, Kar B, John S, Bridges R, Denton M.1998. Two Indian siblings with Oguchi disease are homozygous for an arrestin mutation encoding premature termination. Hum Mutat (Suppl.):S317-S319.
39.
McDonald PH, Chow CW, Miller WE, Laporte SA, Field ME, Lin FT, Davis RJ, Lefkowitz RJ. 2000. Beta-arrestin 2: a receptor-regulated MAPK scaffold for the activation of JNK3. Science290:1574-1577.
40.
Miller WE, Lefkowitz RJ. 2001. Expanding roles for beta-arrestins as scaffolds and adapters in GPCR signaling and trafficking. Curr Opin Cell Biol13:139-145.
41.
Nakamachi Y, Nakamura M, Fujii S, Yamamoto M, Okubo K.1998. Oguchi disease with sectoral retinitis pigmentosa harboring adenine deletion at position 1147 in the arrestin gene. Am J Ophthalmol125:249-251.
42.
Nakazawa M, Wada Y, Fuchs S, Gal A, Tamai M.1997. Oguchi disease: phenotypic characteristics of patients with the frequent 1147delA mutation in the arrestin gene. Retina17:17-22.
43.
Nakazawa M, Wada Y, Tamai M.1998. Arrestin gene mutations in autosomal recessive retinitis pigmentosa. Arch Ophthalmol116:498-501.
44.
Nicolas C, Ghedira I, Stiemer R, Teufel B, Hecquet C, Faure JP, Mirshahi M.2000. Identification of visual arrestin (S-antigen) in retinal pigmented epithelial cells. Curr Eye Res21:677-683.
45.
Orem N, Dolph P.2002. Loss of the phospholipase C gene product induces massive endocytosis of rhodopsin and arrestin in Drosophila photoreceptors. Vision Res42:497-505.
46.
Palczewski K, Buczylko J, Ohguro H, Annan RS, Carr SA, Crabb JW, Kaplan MW, Johnson RS, Walsh KA. 1994. Characterization of a truncated form of arrestin isolated from bovine rod outer segments. Protein Sci3:314-324.
47.
Pfister C, Chabre M, Plouet J, Tuyen VV, De Kozak Y, Faure JP, Kuhn H.1985. Retinal S antigen identified as the 48K protein regulating light-dependent phosphodiesterase in rods. Science228:891-893.
48.
Puig J, Arendt A, Tomson FL, Abdulaeva G, Miller R, Hargrave PA, McDowell JH. 1995. Synthetic phosphopeptide from rhodopsin sequence induces retinal arrestin binding to photoactivated unphosphorylated rhodopsin. FEBS Lett362:185-188.
49.
Pulvermuller A, Schroder K, Fischer T, Hofmann KP. 2000. Interactions of metarhodopsin II: arrestin peptides compete with arrestin and transducin. J Biol Chem275:37679-37685.
50.
Reising CA, Kennedy BG, Getz RK, Mangini NJ. 1996. Immunodetection of an arrestin-like protein in human retinal pigment epithelium. Curr Eye Res15:9-15.
51.
Rim J, Oprian D.1995. Constitutive activation of opsin: interaction of mutants with rhodopsin kinase and arrestin. Biochemistry34:11938-11945.
52.
Robinson PR, Buczylko J, Ohguro H, Palczewski K.1994. Opsins with mutations at the site of chromophore attachment constitutively activate transducin but are not phosphorylated by rhodopsin kinase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A91:5411-5415.
53.
Roman G, He J, Davis RL. 2000. Kurtz, a novel nonvisual arrestin, is an essential neural gene in Drosophila. Genetics155:1281-1295.
54.
Sakuma H, Inana G, Murakami A, Higashide T, McLaren MJ. 1996. Immunolocalization of X-arrestin in human cone photoreceptors. FEBS Lett382:105-110.
55.
Shi W, Sports CD, Raman D, Shirakawa S, Osawa S, Weiss ER. 1998. Rhodopsin arginine-135 mutants are phosphorylated by rhodopsin kinase and bind arrestin in the absence of 11-cis-retinal. Biochemistry37:4869-4874.
56.
Slepnev VI, De Camilli P.2000. Accessory factors in clathrin-dependent synaptic vesicle endocytosis. Nat Rev Neurosci1:161-172.
57.
Smith WC, McDowell JH, Dugger DR, Miller R, Arendt A, Popp MP, Hargrave PA. 1999. Identification of regions of arrestin that bind to rhodopsin. Biochemistry38:2752-2761.
58.
Soler RM, Egea J, Mintenig GM, Sanz-Rodriguez C, Iglesias M, Comella JX. 1998. Calmodulin is involved in membrane depolarization-mediated survival of motoneurons by phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase- and MAPK-independent pathways. J Neurosci18:1230-1239.
59.
Sunayashiki-Kusuzaki K, Kikuchi T, Wawrousek EF, Shinohara T.1997. Arrestin and phosducin are expressed in a small number of brain cells. Brain Res Mol Brain Res52:112-120.
60.
Travis GH. 1998. Mechanisms of cell death in the inherited retinal degenerations. Am J Hum Genet62:503-508.
61.
Vishnivetskiy SA, Paz CL, Schubert C, Hirsch JA, Sigler PB, Gurevich VV. 1999. How does arrestin respond to the phosphorylated state of rhodopsin?J Biol Chem274:11451-11454.
62.
Vrecl M, Anderson L, Hanyaloglu A, McGregor AM, Groarke AD, Milligan G, Taylor PL, Eidne KA. 1998. Agonist-induced endocytosis and recycling of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor: effect of beta-arrestin on internalization kinetics. Mol Endocrinol12:1818-1829.
63.
Wacker WB, Donoso LA, Kalsow CM, Yankeelov JA, Organisciak DT. 1977. Experimental allergic uveitis: isolation, characterization, and localization of a soluble uveitopathogenic antigen from bovine retina. J Immunol119:1949-1958.
64.
Wilden U, Hall S, Kühn H.1986. Phosphodiesterase activation by photoexcited rhodopsin is quenched when rhodopsin is phosphorylated and binds 48 kDa-protein. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A83:1174-1178.
65.
Xu J, Dodd RL, Makino CL, Simon MI, Baylor DA, Chen J.1997. Prolonged photoresponses in transgenic mouse rods lacking arrestin. Nature389:505-509.
66.
Yamada T, Takeuchi Y, Komori N, Kobayashi H, Sakai Y, Hotta Y, Matsumoto H.1990. A 49-kilodalton phosphoprotein in the Drosophila photoreceptor is an arrestin homolog. Science248:483-486.
67.
Yu SP, Canzoniero LM, Choi DW. 2001. Ion homeostasis and apoptosis. Curr Opin Cell Biol13:405-411.
