Cancer of the cervix is one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths in women in the United States and accounts for more cancer deaths than any other cancer in third-world countries. Various screening procedures have been developed, but many issues need to be resolved for cervical cancer screening to be effective. Large segments of the population who do not undergo regular screening account for most of the patients with invasive cancers in the United States and worldwide. Allocation of resources and widespread educational programs for these target populations are needed to promote adequate cytologic screening programs and to reduce the death rate from squamous carcinoma of the cervix.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Cancer Facts and Figures.Atlanta, Ga: American Cancer Society; 1995.
2.
Cancer Facts and Figures.New York, NY: American Cancer Society; 1984.
3.
BrintonL.A., HerreroR., ReevesW.C.Risk factors for cervical cancer by histology. Gynecol Oncol.1993; 51: 301–306.
4.
BendaJ.A.Pathology of cervical carcinoma and its prognostic implications. Semin Oncol.1994; 21: 3–11.
5.
NasiellK., RogerV., NasiellM.Behavior of mild cervical dysplasia during long-term follow-up. Obstet Gynecol.1986; 67: 665–669.
6.
NasiellK., NasiellM., VaclavinkovaV.Behavior of moderate cervical dysplasia during long-term follow-up. Obstet Gynecol.1983; 61: 609–614.
7.
PetersonO.Spontaneous course of cervical precancerous conditions. Am J Obstet Gynecol.1956; 72: 1063–1071.
8.
McIndoeW.A., McLeanM.R., JonesR.W.The invasive potential of carcinoma in situ of the cervix. Obstet Gynecol.1984; 64: 451–458.
9.
KossL.G., StewartF.W., FooteF.W.Some histological aspects of behavior of epidermoid carcinoma in situ and related lesions of the uterine cervix. Cancer.1963; 16: 1160–1211.
10.
MitchellM.F.The natural history of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Clin Consult Obstet Gynecol.1994; 6: 31–36.
11.
QizilbashA.H.In-situ and microinvasive adenocarcinoma of the uterine cervix. Am J Clin Path.1975; 64: 155–170.
12.
OstorA.G., PaganoR., DavorenR.A.Adenocarcinoma in situ of the cervix. Int J Gynecol Path.1984; 3: 179–190.
13.
BertrandM., LickrishG.M., ColganT.J.The anatomic distribution of cervical adenocarcinoma in situ: implications for treatment. Am J Obstet Gynecol.1987; 157: 21–25.
14.
HopkinsM.P., RobertsJ.A., SchmidtR.W.Cervical adenocarcinoma in situ. Obstet Gynecol.1988; 71: 842–844.
15.
AndersenE.S., ArffmannE.Adenocarcinoma in situ of the uterine cervix: a clinico-pathologic study of 36 cases. Gynecol Oncol.1989; 35: 1–7.
16.
MuntzH.G., BellD.A., LageJ.M.Adenocarcinoma in situ of the uterine cervix. Obstet Gynecol.1992; 80: 935–939.
17.
PoynorE.A., BarakatR.R., SaigoP.E.Management and follow-up of patients with adenocarcinoma in situ of the uterine cervix. Proceedings of the 25th Annual Meeting of Society of Gynecologic Oncologists, 1994. Abstract.
18.
FujimotoI., NemotoH., FukudaK.Epidemiologic study of carcinoma in situ of the cervix. J Reprod Med.1985; 30: 535–540.
19.
ParazziniF., La VecchiaC., NegriE.Risk factors for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Cancer.1992; 69: 2276–2282.
20.
VonkaV., KankaJ., HirschI.Prospective study on the relationship between cervical neoplasia and herpes simplex type-2 virus. II: herpes simplex type-2 antibody presence in sera taken at enrollment. Int J Cancer.1984; 33: 61–66.
21.
LorinczA.T., ReidR., JensonA.B.Human papillomavirus infection of the cervix: relative risk associations of 15 common anogenital types. Obstet Gynecol.1992; 79: 328–337.
22.
RichartR.M., WrightT.C.Jr. Controversies in the management of low-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Cancer.1993; 71(Suppl 4): 1413–1421.
23.
KurmanR.J., MalkasianG.D.Jr, SedlisA.From Papanicolaou to Bethesda: the rationale for a new cervical cytologic classification. Obstet Gynecol.1991; 77: 779–782.
24.
RichartR.M., JonesHWIII, ReidR.Classification and interpretation of pap smears. Am Coll Obstet Gynecol Update.1993; 18: 1–9.
25.
LonkyN.M., NavarreG.L., SaundersS.Low-grade Papanicolaou smears and the Bethesda system: a prospective cytohistopathologic analysis. Obstet Gynecol.1995; 85: 716–720.
26.
DurstM., KleinheinzA., HotzM.The physical state of human papillomavirus type 16 DNA in benign and malignant genital tumours. J Gen Virol.1985; 66: 1515–1522.
27.
CampionM.J., McCanceD.J., CuzickJ.Progressive potential of mild cervical atypia: prospective cytological, colposcopic, and virological study. Lancet.1986; 2: 237–240.
28.
KoutskyL.A., HolmesK.K., CritchlowC.W.A cohort study of the risk of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2 or 3 in relation to papillomavirus infection. N Engl J Med.1992; 327: 1272–1278.
29.
McCanceD.J., KopanR., FuchsE.Human papillomavirus type 16 alters human epithelial cell differentiation in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.1988; 85: 7169–7173.
30.
SchiffmanM.H.Recent progress in defining the epidemiology of human papillomavirus infection and cervical neoplasia. J Natl Cancer Inst.1992; 84: 394–398.
31.
PapanicolaouG.N., TrautH.F.The diagnostic value of vaginal smears in carcinoma of the uterus. Am J Obstet Gynecol.1941; 42: 193–206.
32.
AyreJ.E.Selective cytology smear for diagnosis of cancer. Am J Obstet Gynecol.1947; 53: 609–617.
33.
BoccioloneL., La VecchiaC., LeviF.Trends in uterine cancer mortality in the Americas, 1955–1988. Gynecol Oncol.1993; 51: 335–344.
34.
AdamiH.O., PontenJ., SparenP.Survival trend after invasive cervical cancer diagnosis in Sweden before and after cytologic screening: 1960–1984. Cancer.1994; 73: 140–147.
35.
NieminenP., KallioM., HakamaM.The effect of mass screening on incidence and mortality of squamous and adenocarcinoma of cervix uteri. Obstet Gynecol.1995; 85: 1017–1021.
36.
ParkinD.M., LaaraE., MuirC.S.Estimates of the worldwide frequency of sixteen major cancers in 1980. Int J Cancer.1988; 41: 184–197.
37.
KossL.G.Cervical (Pap) smear: new directions. Cancer.1993; 71(Suppl 4): 1406–1412.
van der GraafY., VooijsG.P., GaillardH.L.Screening errors in cervical cytology screening. Acta Cytol.1987; 31: 434–438.
40.
MelamedM.R.Quality control in the cytology laboratory. Acta Cytol.1976; 20: 203–206.
41.
DiBonitoL., FalconieriG., TomasicG.Cervical cytopathology: an evaluation of its accuracy based on cytohistologic comparison. Cancer.1993; 72: 3002–3006.
42.
YobsA.R., SwansonR.A., LamotteL.C.Jr. Laboratory reliability of the Papanicolaou smear. Obstet Gynecol.1985; 65: 235–244.
43.
WainG.V., FarnsworthA., HackerN.F.Cervical carcinoma after negative Pap smears: evidence against rapid-onset cancers. Int J Gynecol Cancer.1992; 2: 318–322.
44.
StanbridgeC.M., SulemanB.A., PersadR.V.A cervical smear review in women developing cervical carcinoma with particular reference to negative cytology and the histologic age, false-type of the carcinoma. Int J Gynecol Cancer.1992; 2: 92–100.
45.
PearlstoneA.C., GrigsbyP.W., MutchD.G.High rates of atypical cervical cytology: occurrence and clinical significance. Obstet Gynecol.1992; 80: 191–195.
46.
HoffmanM.S., HillD.A., GordyL.W.Comparing the yield of the standard Papanicolaou and endocervical brush smears. J Reprod Med.1991; 36: 267–269.
47.
HoffmanM.S., FinanM., WallachP.Use of the cytobrush in postmenopausal women. J Gynecol Surg.1991; 7: 23–25.
48.
HoffmanM.S., GordyL.W., CavanaghD.Use of the cytobrush for cervical sampling after cryotherapy. Acta Cytol.1991; 35: 79–80.
49.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Report of the task force on routine cancer screening. Washington DC: The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists; 1989.
50.
FinkD.J.Change in American Cancer Society checkup guidelines for detection of cervical cancer. CA J Clin Oncol.1988; 38: 127–128.
51.
DiSaiaP.J., CreasmanW.T.Preinvasive disease of the cervix. In: Clinical Gynecologic Oncology.4th ed.St Louis, Mo: Mosby Year Book; 1993: 3–4.
52.
Recommendations on frequency of Pap test screening. ACOG opinion committee on gynecologic practice. No. 152. March 1995.
53.
GilesJ.A., HudsonE., CrowJ.Colposcopic assessment of the accuracy of cervical cytology screening. Br Med J.1988; 296: 1099–1102.
54.
NavratilE., BurghardtE., BajardiF.Simultaneous colposcopy and cytology used in the screening for carcinoma of the cervix. Am J Obstet Gynecol.1958; 75: 1292–1297.
55.
LimburgH.Comparison between cytology and colposcopy in the diagnosis of early cervical carcinoma. Am J Obstet Gynecol.1958; 75: 1298–1301.
56.
OlatunbosunO.A., OkonofuaF.E., AyangadeS.O.Screening for cervical neoplasia in an African population: simultaneous use of cytology and colposcopy. Int J Gynecol Obstet.1991; 36: 39.
57.
StaflA.Cervicography: a new method for cervical cancer detection. Am J Obstet Gynecol.1981; 139: 815–825.
58.
BlytheJ.G.Cervicography: a preliminary report. Am J Obstet Gynecol.1985; 152: 192–197.
59.
HallJ.B., McGeeJ.A.Jr, MarroumM.C.Evaluation of the cerviscope as a screening instrument. Gynecol Oncol.1985; 20: 17–22.
60.
TawaK., ForsytheA., CoveJ.K.A comparison of the Papanicolaou smear and the cervigram: sensitivity, specificity, and cost analysis. Obstet Gynecol.1988; 71: 229–235.
61.
SzarewskiA., CuzickJ., EdwardsR.The use of cervicography in a primary screening service. Br J Obstet Gynecol.1991; 98: 313–317.
62.
ReidR., GreenbergM.D., LorinczA.Should cervical cytologic testing be augmented by cervicography or human papillomavirus deoxyribonucleic acid detection?Am J Obstet Gynecol.1991; 164: 1461–1471.
63.
KesicV.I., SoutterW.P., SulovicV.A comparison of cytology and cervicography in cervical screening. Int J Gynecol Cancer.1993; 3: 395–398.
64.
OttavianoM., La TorreP.Examination of the cervix with the naked eye using acetic acid test. Am J Obstet Gynecol.1982; 143: 139–142.
65.
FicsorG., FullerS.K., JerominJ.L.Enhancing cervical cancer detection using nucleic acid hybridization and acetic acid tests. Nurse Pract.1990; 15: 26, 29–30.
66.
Van LeL., BroekhuizenF.F., Janzer-SteeleR.Acetic acid visualization of the cervix to detect cervical dysplasia. Obstet Gynecol.1993; 81: 293–295.
67.
BauerH.M., TingY., GreerC.E.Genital human papillomavirus infection in female university students as determined by a PCR-based method. JAMA.1991; 265: 472–477.
68.
CoxJ.T., LorinczA.T., SchiffmanM.H.Human papillomavirus testing by hybrid capture appears to be useful in triaging women with a cytologic diagnosis of atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance. Am J Obstet Gynecol.1995; 172: 946–954.
69.
SadeghiS.B., SadeghiA., RobboyS.J.Prevalence of dysplasia and cancer of the cervix in a nationwide Planned Parenthood population. Cancer.1988; 61: 2359–2361.
70.
Draeby-KristiansenJ., GarsaaeM., BruunH.Ten years after cryosurgical treatment of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Am J Obstet Gynecol.1991; 165: 43–45.
