Abstract
The goal of this article is to understand the value of data and to call for efforts to explore improved data sharing and collection among local, state, and federal agencies. It discusses the data available and existing barriers to sharing it. It also looks at examples of data sharing initiatives and analysis, such as mapping and visualization tools. The article then examines relevant regulations and calls for reforms. Finally, the article considers objections, including privacy interests, data security, and the costs and benefits of data sharing initiatives.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
J. Katz
, “Drug Deaths in America are Rising Faster Than Ever,” New York Times , June 5 , 2017 , available at <http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/06/05/upshot/opioid-epidemic-drug-overdose-deaths-are-rising-faster-than-ever.html> (last visited May 10, 2018 ).
2.
J. Hirschfield Davis
, “Trump Declares Opioid Crisis a ‘Health Emergency’ But Requests No Funds,” New York Times , October 26 , 2017 , available at <http://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/26/us/politics/trump-opioid-crisis.html> (last visited May 10, 2018 ).
3.“The Prescription Opioid Crisis: Policy and Program Recommendations to Reduce Opioid Overdose Deaths in Iowa,” Injury Prevention Research Center , available at <http://www.public-health.uiowa.edu/iprc/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/UIIPRC_Opiod_Report-_17.web_.pdf> (last visited May 10, 2018 ).
4.
K. Casteel
, “Data on Drug Use is Disappearing Just When We Need It Most,” FiveThirtyEight , available at <http://fivethirtyeight.com/features/data-on-drug-use-is-disappearing-just-when-we-need-it-most> (last visited May 10, 2018 ).
5.See, e.g ., Governor of the State of Connecticut , “Gov. Malloy Proposes Legislative Package to Further the State’s Efforts Combating Opioid Addiction and Overdoses,” available at <http://portal.ct.gov/en/Office-of-the-Governor/Press-Room/Press-Releases/2017/01-2017/Gov-Malloy-Proposes-Legislative-Package-to-Further-the-States-Efforts-Combating-Opioid-Addiction> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
6.
I. Lapowsky
, “Indiana, Reeling from Opioid Crisis, Arms Officials with Data,” Wired , September 14 , 2017 , available at <http://www.wired.com/story/indiana-reeling-from-opioid-crisis-arms-officials-with-data> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
7.President’s Commission on Combating Drug Addiction and the Opioid Crisis, Final Report 7 (2017) .
8.
A. Hsu
, “Some States Say Declaring an Emergency Has Helped in the Opioid Fight,” NPR , August 9 , 2017 , available at <http://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2017/08/09/542416005/some-states-say-declaring-an-emergency-has-helped-in-theopioid-fight> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
9.Casteel, supra note 4 .
10.Injury Prevention Research Center, supra note 3, at 10 .
11.
T.D. Schmidt
et al
., “Key Data Gaps Regarding the Public Health Issues Associated with Opioid Analgesics,” Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research 42 , no. 4 (2015 ): 540 -553 , at 542.
12.
J.W. Buehler
et al
., “Framework for Evaluating Public Health Surveillance Systems for Early Detection of Outbreaks,” CDC , available at <http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5305a1.htm> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
13.
K.J. Henning
, “Overview of Syndromic Surveillance: What is Syndromic Surveillance?” CDC , available at <http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/su5301a3.htm> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
14.
Id
.
15.
A.C. Guerrero
et al
., “Norovirus Outbreak Detected by Emergency Department Syndromic Surveillance Using RedBat,” Advances in Disease Surveillance 4 (2007 ): 165 .
16.
L. May
et al
., “Beyond Traditional Surveillance: Applying Syndromic Surveillance to Developing Settings—Opportunities and Challenges,” BMC Public Health 9 (2009 ): 241 -253 .
17.
Id
.
18.Fentanyl: The Next Wave of the Opioid Crisis: Hearing Before the H. Comm. on Energy & Commerce and H. Subcomm. on Oversight & Investigations , 115th Cong. (2017) (statement of Dr. Debra Houry, Director, Nat’l Ctr. For Injury Prevention and Control)
19.
Id
.
20.“Enhanced State Opioid Overdose Surveillance,” CDC , available at <http://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/foa/state-opioidmm.html> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
21.“HHS Awards $53 Million to Help Address Opioid Epidemic,” Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration , available at <http://www.samhsa.gov/newsroom/press-announcements/201608310600> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
22.
E.R. Daly
et al
., “Use of Emergency Department Data to Monitor and Respond to an Increase in Opioid Overdoses in New Hampshire, 2011-2015,” Public Health Reports 132 (2017 ): 73S -79S , at 74S.
23.
Id
.
24.
T. Newcombe
, “Can Technology Help Prevent Drug Overdoses?” Governing , available at <http://www.governing.com/columns/tech-talk/gov-massachusetts-data-drug-overdoses.html> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
25.
M. McCormick
et al
., “Development and Use of a New Opioid Overdose Surveillance System, 2016,” Rhode Island Medical Journal (2017 ): 37 -39 , at 37.
26.
Id
.
27.“Drug Overdose Surveillance,” Virginia Department of Health , available at <http://www.vdh.virginia.gov/surveillance-and-investigation/syndromic-surveillance/drug-overdose-surveillance> (last visited May 18, 2018 ).
28.“Heroin Overdoses,” City of Cincinnati , available at <http://insights.cincinnati-oh.gov/stories/s/Heroin/dm3s-ep3u> (last visited May 14, 2018, 2018 ).
29.
J. Bowles
, “Can Big Data Cure America’s Opioid Abuse Nightmare?” Diginomica , available at <http://diginomica.com/2017/07/13/can-big-data-solve-americas-opioid-abuse-nightmare> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
30.
A. Payne
, “Data Fix: Cities Seek Better Information on Opioid Epidemic,” Ohio Valley Resource , August 4 , 2017 , available at <http://ohiovalleyresource.org/2017/08/04/informed-response-cities-seek-better-data-opioid-crisis> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
31.Lapowsky, supra note 6 .
32.McCormick et al., supra note 25, at 38 .
33.“Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs,” National Conference of State Legislatures , available at <http://www.ncsl.org/research/health/prescription-drug-monitoring-programs-postcard.aspx> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
34.
K. Blumenschein
et al
., “Review of Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs in the United States,” Kentucky All Schedule Prescription Electronic Reporting Program Evaluation Team , available at <http://chfs.ky.gov/NR/rdonlyres/85989824-1030-4AA6-91E1-7F9E3EF68827/0/KASPEREvaluationPDMPStatusFinalReport6242010.pdf> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
35.
B. Chakravarthy
et al
., “Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs and Other Interventions to Combat Prescription Opioid Abuse,” Western Journal of Emergency Medicine XIII (2012 ): 422 -425 , at 424.
36.
R.L. Haffajee
, “Preventing Opioid Misuse with Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs: A Framework for Evaluating the Success of State Public Health Laws,” Hastings Law Journal 67 (2016 ): 1621 -1694 , at 1624.
37.
A. Huguelet
, “Prescription Drug Monitoring Program Gets Long-Awaited Approval in Missouri Senate,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch , April 13 , 2017 , available at <http://www.stltoday.com/news/local/govt-and-politics/prescription-drug-monitoring-program-gets-long-awaited-approval-in-missouri/article_5bc2ae1e-294f-5b49-8b52-203e7f0bc098.html> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
38.“Michigan Launches New Prescription Drug Monitoring Program to Help Prevent Opioid Abuse,” Michigan State Government , available at <http://www.michigan.gov/som/0,4669,7-192-29701_74909_74922-409144--,00.html> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
39.
L. Rutkow
et al
., “Prescription Drug Monitoring Program Design and Function: A Qualitative Analysis,” Drug & Alcohol Dependence 180 (2017 ): 395 -400 , at 396.
40.
R.A. Deyo
et al
., “Measures Such as Interstate Cooperation Would Improve the Efficacy of Programs to Track Controlled Drug Prescriptions,” Health Affairs 32 (2013 ): 603 -613 .
41.
Id
.
42.See, e.g .,
I. Ayres
and
A. Jalal
“The Impact of Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs on U.S. Opioid Prescriptions,” Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 46 , no. 2 (2018 ): 387 -403 .
43.
L.J. Paulozzi
et al
., “Controlled Substance Prescribing Patterns — Prescription Behavior Surveillance System, Eight States, 2013,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report: Surveillance Summaries 64 , no. 9 (2015 ): 1 -14 , at 13.
44.
D. Paone
et al
., “Decrease in Rate of Opioid Analgesic Overdose Deaths — Staten Island, New York City, 2011-2013,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 64 , no. 18 (2015 ): 491 -494 .
45.
C.A. Griggs
et al
., “Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs: Examining Limitations and Future Approaches,” Western Journal of Emergency Medicine XVI (2015 ): 67 -70 .
46.
A. Robeznieks
, “PDMP Case Pits Patient Privacy Against Law-Enforcement Intrusion,” American Medical Association Wire , available at <http://wire.ama-assn.org/practice-management/pdmp-case-pits-patient-privacy-against-law-enforcement-intrusion> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
47.See, e.g., Oregon Prescription Drug Monitoring Program v. U.S. Drug Enforcement Admin ., 860 F.3d 1228, 1230 (9th Cir. 2017); Pyle v. Woods , 874 F.3d 1257, 1262 (10th Cir. 2017); U.S. Dep’t of Just. Drug Enforcement Admin. V. Utah Dep’t. of Commerce , No. 2:16-cv-611-DN-DBP, 2017 WL 3189868 (D. Utah 2017)
48.Oregon Prescription Drug Monitoring Program, 860 F.3d at 1231; Pyle v. Woods , 874 F.3d at 1268; Utah Dep’t. of Commerce, No. 2:16-cv-611-DN-DBP, 2017 WL 3189868 at 19 .
49.See
J.M. Butler
et al
., “Big Data and the Opioid Crisis: Balancing Patient Privacy with Public Health,” Journal of Law, Medicine, & Ethics 46 , no. 2 (2018 ): 440 -453 .
50.
K. Murphy
et al
., “Finding Solutions to the Prescription Opioid and Heroin Crisis: A Road Map for States,” National Governors Association , available at <http://www.nga.org/files/live/sites/NGA/files/pdf/2016/1607NGAOpioidRoadMap.pdf> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
51.“Using Data to Combat the Opioid Epidemic,” Drug Enforcement Administration , at 8 , available at <http://www.pccd.pa.gov/training/Documents/Conferences%20and%20Training/Data%20Sharing.pdf> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
52.“U.S. Standard Certificate of Death,” CDC , available at <http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/dvs/death11-03final-acc.pdf> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
53.See, e.g .,
M. Nedelman
, “Doctors Increasingly Face Charges for Patient Overdoses,” CNN , July 31 , 2017 , available at <http://www.cnn.com/2017/07/31/health/opioid-doctors-responsible-overdose/index.html> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
54.See, e.g .,
D. Leinwand Leger
, “Police Carry Special Drug to Reverse Heroin Overdoses,” USA Today, January 30 , 2014 , available at <http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2014/01/30/police-use-narcan-to-reverse-heroin-overdoses/5063587> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
55.Murphy, supra note 50, at 30 .
56.“Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Program,” Office of National Drug Control Policy , available at <http://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/ondcp/arrestee-drug-abuse-monitoring-program> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
57.“STRIDE Data,” Drug Enforcement Administration , available at <http://www.dea.gov/resource-center/stride-data.shtml> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
58.
S. Schneeweiss
, “Learning From Big Health Care Data,” New England Journal of Medicine 370 (2014 ): 2161 -2163 , at 2162.
59.Institute of Medicine , Patient Safety: Achieving a New Standard for Care (Washington, D.C. : The National Academies Press , 2004 ): at 128 -129 .
60.“What is an Electronic Health Record?” Office of National Coordinator for Health Information Technology , available at <http://www.healthit.gov/providers-professionals/faqs/what-electronic-health-record-ehr> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
61.
Id
.
62.42 U.S.C. § 300jj-31(a)(1) (2012) .
63.“Office-Based Health Care Professional Participation in the CMS EHR Incentive Programs,” Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology , available at <http://dashboard.healthit.gov/quickstats/pages/FIG-Hospitals-EHR-Incentive-Programs.php> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
64.Schneeweiss, supra note 58, at 2162 .
65.
S. Cherico-Hsii
et al
., “Sharing Overdose Data Across State Agencies to Inform Public Health Strategies: A Case Study,” Public Health Reports 131 , no. 2 (2016 ): 258 -263 , at 261.
66.Internet Policy Task Force , “Commercial Data Privacy and Innovation in the Internet Economy: A Dynamic Policy Framework,” Department of Commerce , at 60 , available at <http://www.ntia.doc.gov/files/ntia/publications/iptf_privacy_greenpaper_12162010.pdf> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
67.
N.P. Terry
, “Regulatory Disruption and Arbitrage in Health-Care Data Protection,” Yale Journal of Health Policy, Law & Ethics 17 , no. 1 (2017 ): 143 -208 , 149-150.
68.
M.R. Gasner
et al
., “Legal and Policy Barriers to Sharing Data Between Public Health Programs in New York City: A Case Study,” American Journal of Public Health 104 , no. 6 (2014 ): 993 -997 , at 993.
69.
S. Lachman
, “The Opioid Plague’s Youngest Victims: Children in Foster Care,” New York Times , December 28 , 2017 , available at <http://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/28/opinion/opioid-crisis-children-foster-care.html> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
70.
B. Duncan
, “As Opioid Crisis Strains Foster Care, States Aren’t Tracking the Damage,” Center for Investigative Reporting , January 8 , 2018 , available at <http://www.revealnews.org/article/as-opioid-crisis-strains-foster-care-states-arent-tracking-the-damage> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
71.
Id
.
72.Payne, supra note 30 .
73.“Data Security and Confidentiality Guidelines,” CDC, at 4, available at <http://www.cdc.gov/nchhstp/programintegration/docs/pcsidatasecurityguidelines.pdf> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
74.See, e.g ., Public Health and Law Enforcement Emergency Preparedness Workgroup , “A Framework for Improving Cross-Sector Coordination for Emergency Preparedness and Response: Action Steps for Public Health, Law Enforcement, the Judiciary and Corrections,” CDC , at iii -iv , available at <http://www.cdc.gov/phlp/docs/CDC_BJA_Framework.pdf> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
75.See, e.g ., U.S. Attorney’s Office, District of Connecticut , “Statewide Initiative Targets Distributors of Heroin and Opioids that Cause Overdose Deaths,” Department of Justice , available at <http://www.justice.gov/usao-ct/pr/statewide-initiative-targets-distributors-heroin-and-opioids-cause-overdose-deaths> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
76.M.R. Gasner et al., supra note 68, at 993 .
77.Id . at 994
78.
Id
.
79.Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology , “Report on Health Information Blocking,” United States Department of Health & Human Services , at 12 , available at <http://www.healthit.gov/sites/default/files/reports/info_blocking_040915.pdf> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
80.
Id
.
81.
Id
.
82.“Accidental Drug Related Deaths 2012-2016,” Connecticut Open Data , available at <http://data.ct.gov/Health-and-Human-Services/Accidental-Drug-Related-Deaths-2012-2016/ecj5-r2i9> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
83.“Accidental Drug Related Deaths 2012-June 2017,” Connecticut Open Data , available at <http://data.ct.gov/Health-and-Human-Services/Accidental-Drug-Related-Deaths-2012-June-2017/rybz-nyjw> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
84.
Id
.
85.
Conn. Exec. Order No. 39 (Feb. 20, 2014), <http://www.ct.gov/opm/lib/opm/secretary/open_data/eo_39_open_data.pdf> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
86.
Id
.
87.See, e.g .,
S. Olson
and
A.S. Downey
“Sharing Clinical Research Data: Workshop Summary,” Institute of Medicine of the National Academies , at 9 , available at <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK131772/pdf/Bookshelf_NBK131772.pdf> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
88.
A. Garza
and
S. Dyer
“EMS Data Can Help Stop the Opioid Epidemic,” Journal of Emergency Medical Services , available at <http://www.jems.com/articles/print/volume-41/issue-11/features/ems-data-can-help-stop-the-opioid-epidemic.html> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
89.
A. Knowlton
et al
., “EMS Runs for Suspected Opioid Overdose: Implications for Surveillance and Prevention,” Prehospital Emergency Care 17 , no. 3 (2013 ); 317 -329 , at 319.
90.See
R.C. Merchant
et al
., “Demographic, Geographic, and Temporal Patterns of Ambulance Runs for Suspected Opiate Overdose in Rhode Island, 1997-2002,” Substance Use Misuse 41 , no. 9 (2006 ): 1209 -1226 .
91.Heroin Overdoses, supra note 28 .
92.
Id
.
93.
Id
.
94.
M. Burry
, “Gathering Insights from Cincinnati’s Heroin Tracker,” Socrata , available at <http://socrata.com/blog/gathering-insights-cincinnati-heroin-tracker> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
95.
B.E. Crowley
, “Data’s Critical Role in Reversing the Opioid Epidemic,” Governing , available at <http://www.governing.com/gov-institute/voices/col-cincinnati-app-track-reverse-opioid-heroine-overdoses.html> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
96.Burry, supra note 94 .
97.
A.J. Tomassoni
et al
., “Multiple Fentanyl Overdoses — New Haven, Connecticut, June 23, 2016,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 66 , no. 4 (2017 ): 107 -111 , at 109.
98.
Id
.
99.Id . at 109-110
100.
“Overdose Heatmap,” City of Seattle, available at <http://data.seattle.gov/Public-Safety/Overdose-Heatmap/79jre6hx> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
101.“Police Service Calls for Drug Overdoses, 2015-YTD (Summary Data),” Northampton Massachusetts Police Department , available at <http://www.northamptonpd.com/npd-open-data-portal/drug-overdoses/247-police-service-calls-for-drug-overdoses-2015-ytd-summary-data.html> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
102.
Md. Exec. Order No. 01.01.2014.12 (June 27, 2013), <http://mgaleg.maryland.gov/Pubs/LegisLegal/2014-executive-orders.pdf> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
103.
Id
.
104.Cherico-Hsii et al., supra note 65, at 259 .
105.
Id
.
106.Id . at 260
107.
Id
.
108.
Id
.
109.Id . at 261
110.
Id
.
111.
Id
.
112.
L.S. Friedman
, “Real-Time Surveillance of Illicit Drug Overdoses Using Poison Center Data,” Clinical Toxicology 47 (2009 ): 573 -579 , at 575.
113.Id . at 579
114.
L.R. Webster
and
R.M. Webster
“Predicting Aberrant Behaviors in Opioid-Treatment Patients: Preliminary Validation of the Opioid Risk Tool,” Pain Medicine 6 , no. 6 (2006 ): 432 -442 .
115.
T. Ciesielski
et al
., “A Tool To Assess Risk of De Novo Opioid Abuse or Dependence,” American Journal of Medicine 129 , no. 7 (2016 ): 699 -705 .
116.
S. Williams
, “Can Big Data Stop Opioid Abuse?” Biomedical Computation Review , November 17 , 2017 , available at <http://www.bcr.org/content/can-big-data-stop-opioid-abuse> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
117.“Healthcare Payer Strategies to Reduce the Harms of Opioids,” Healthcare Fraud Prevention Partnership , at 35 -36 , available at <http://downloads.cms.gov/files/hfpp/hfpp-opioid-white-paper.pdf> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
118.“Using Data to Combat the Opioid Epidemic,” supra note 51, at 44 .
119.“State Successes,” CDC , available at <http://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/policy/successes.html> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
120.45 C.F.R. § 164.500 (2013) .
121.45 C.F.R. § 160.103 (2014) .
122.
45 C.F.R. § 164.508 (2013).
123.
45 C.F.R. § 164.512(b)(1)(i).
124.
45 C.F.R. § 164.512 (j)(1)(i)(A).
125.
42 C.F.R. Part 2, Subpart A § 2.2.
126.
Id
.
127.
Id
.
128.
J.M. Butler
et al
., “Big Data and the Opioid Crisis: Balancing Patient Privacy with Public Health,” Journal of Law, Medicine, & Ethics 46 , no. 2 (2018 ): 440 -453 .
129.Office of Civil Rights , “Guidance Regarding Methods for Deidentification of Protected Health Information,” Department of Health and Human Services , available at <http://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/ocr/privacy/hipaa/understanding/coveredentities/De-identification/hhs_deid_guidance.pdf> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
130.
Id
.
131.
M.L. Habte
et al
., “The Big Data Dilemma,” Journal of Health Care Compliance 17 (2015 ): 5 -12 , at 7-9.
132.Id . at 6.
133.
Id
.
134.Id . at 8.
135.Id .; see also 173 Neb. Admin. Code Ch.1 § 003 (2002).
136.“Prescription Drug Monitoring Program (PMP) Data Retention Timelines,” National Alliance for Model State Drug Laws , at 2 -3 , available at <http://www.namsdl.org/library/FBCBFA40-FC5B-9F50-5394E9EB4D199F5E> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
137.
Ark. Code Ann. § 20-7-607(c) (2017).
138.
35 Pa. Stat. and Cons. Stat. § 872.6 (2015).
139.
Data Retention Timelines, supra note 136.
140.“Types of Authorized Recipients — De-Identified Data,” National Alliance for Model State Drug Laws , available at <http://www.namsdl.org/library/8B516251-D764-149D-59C618FCBC6AD5EE> (last visited January 25, 2018 ).
141.
Colo. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 12-42.5-404(5) (2016).
142.
Okla. Stat. Ann. 63, § 2-309D (2016).
143.
Types of Authorized Recipients, supra note 140.
144.“Interstate Sharing of Prescription Monitoring Database Information,” National Alliance for Model State Drug Laws , available at <http://www.namsdl.org/library/8C2F8F5BF426-FC5F-226056040DF15FD6> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
145.
Conn. Gen. Stat. Ann. § 21a-274 (West 2016).
146.
Interstate Sharing, supra note 144.
147.
Murphy, supra note 50, at 20.
148.“Public Health Responsibilities and Actions for Preventing Opioid Drug Overdose,” Safe States Alliance , at 3 , available at <http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/www.safestates.org/resource/resmgr/executive_committee/Safe_States_Alliance_PDO_Pos.pdf> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
149.
S.B. 5514, 65th Leg., Reg. Sess. (Wash. 2017).
150.
H.B. 2620, 2017 Leg., Reg. Sess. (W. Va. 2017).
151.
W. Va. Code § 16-5T-2 (2017).
152.
W. Va. Code § 16-5T-3 (2017).
153.
W. Va. Code § 16-5T-4 (2017).
154.
President’s Commission on Combating Drug Addiction and the Opioid Crisis, Interim Report 7 (2017).
155.
Terry, supra note 67, at 169-71.
156.
Jessie’s Law, S.581, 115th Cong. (2017).
157.
45 C.F.R. § 164.514(a),(b) (2013).
158.
B.G. Link
et al
., “On Stigma and Its Consequences: Evidence from a Longitudinal Study of Men with Dual Diagnoses of Mental Illness and Substance Abuse,” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 38 , no. 2 (1987 ): 177 -190 .
159.
C. Safran
et al
., “Toward a National Framework for the Secondary Use of Health Data: An American Medical Informatics Association White Paper,” Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association 14 , no. 1 (2007 ): 1 -9 , at 6.
160.
A. Kirzinger
et al
., ”Kaiser Health Tracking Poll: August 2016,” Kaiser Family Foundation , available at <http://www.kff.org/global-health-policy/poll-finding/kaiser-health-tracking-poll-august-2016> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
161.“49 States Combat Opioid Epidemic with Prescription Database,” NPR , May 10 , 2016 , available at <http://www.npr.org/2016/05/10/477449821/as-opiod-crisis-escalates-missouri-is-without-monitoring-database> (last visited May 14, 2018 ).
162.
Habte, supra note 131, at 10-12.
163.
45 C.F.R. § 164.400-164.414 (2000).
164.See, e.g ., Cal. Civil Code § 1798.82.
165.See, e.g ., Mass. Reg. 201 CMR 17.00.